Observational studyThe Journal of nutrition2025
Maternal and Infant Predictors of Human Milk Macronutrient and Energy Concentrations in Rural Bangladesh: An Observational Cohort Study.
Observational study in The Journal of nutrition, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 3 papers.
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3 citing papers in PubMed.
- Prevalence and risk factors of low birth weight in a rural district of Bangladesh: a prospective cohort study.BMC pediatrics · 2026Article
- Untargeted Metabolomics Analysis of Human Milk from Breastfeeding Bangladeshi Women Reveals Amino Acid Metabolic Pathways Associated with Maternal Nutritional Status and Infant Growth.The Journal of nutrition · 2026Article
- Reference Values for Macronutrients in Human Milk: the Mothers, Infants and Lactation Quality (MILQ) Study.Advances in nutrition (Bethesda, Md.) · 2025Article
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14 authors.
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Abstract
backgroundHuman milk macronutrient (protein, fat, and carbohydrate) and energy concentrations vary based on maternal and infant factors and time postpartum.
objectivesThis study aimed to determine the change in milk macronutrient and energy concentrations from approximately 2 to 5 months postpartum and identify factors associated with this variation among a lactation cohort in Bangladesh.
methodsIn this prospective observational lactation cohort in rural Sylhet, Bangladesh, we collected hand-expressed mid-feed human milk samples and analyzed macronutrient concentrations using mid-infrared spectroscopy. We used the Wilcoxon rank-sum test to compare macronutrient and energy concentrations between time points and mixed linear regression to determine associations between predictors [maternal body mass index (BMI), maternal mid-upper arm circumference, infant gestational age, and infant small for gestational age status] and repeated measures of milk macronutrient and energy concentrations in models adjusted for parity, nicotine, and wealth index.
resultsWe enrolled 99 participants. From visit 1 (∼2 mo) to visit 2 (∼5 mo), median milk protein concentration decreased from 1.4 g/dL [interquartile range (IQR): 1.1-1.6 g/dL] to 0.8 g/dL (IQR: 0.6-1.1 g/dL), median fat concentration decreased from 4.6 g/dL (IQR: 3.8-5.5 g/dL) to 2.8 g/dL (IQR: 2.1-3.7 g/dL), and median energy concentration decreased from 22.7 kcal/oz (IQR: 20.6-25.1 kcal/oz) to 17.5 kcal/oz (IQR: 15.6-19.9 kcal/oz). Maternal overweight status was associated with a lower carbohydrate concentration (2 mo-mean difference: -0.16 g/dL; 95% CI: -0.28, -0.03 g/dL; 5 mo-mean difference: -0.14 g/dL; 95% CI: -0.26, -0.02; reference = normal BMI).
conclusionsThe decline of protein, fat, and energy concentrations over time is a potential concern for Bangladesh's vulnerable population of human milk-fed infants, as these nutrients have implications for infant growth and neurodevelopment.
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