ArticleFrontiers in immunology2024
Impact of COVID-19, lockdowns and vaccination on immune responses in a HIV cohort in the Netherlands.
Article in Frontiers in immunology, 2024. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 3 papers.
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
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Who cites it
3 citing papers in PubMed.
- Bariatric surgery and subsequent weight loss lead to a reversal of peripheral blood monocytosis in obesity.International journal of obesity (2005) · 2026Article
- Opposite effects of chronic HIV infection and antiretroviral medication on organismal and organ-specific biological aging.Nature communications · 2026Article
- Innate immune cell function in statin-treated patients with severe hypercholesterolemia is comparable to normocholesterolemic individuals: A cross-sectional study.Atherosclerosis plus · 2025Article
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
19 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Introduction: During the COVID-19 pandemic, major events with immune-modulating effects at population-level included COVID-19 infection, lockdowns, and mass vaccinations campaigns. As immune responses influence many immune-mediated diseases, population scale immunological changes may have broad consequences. Methods: We investigated the impact of lockdowns, COVID-19 infection and vaccinations on immune responses in the 2000HIV study including 1895 asymptomatic virally-suppressed people living with HIV recruited between October 2019 and October 2021. Their inflammatory profile was assessed by targeted plasma proteomics, immune responsiveness by cytokine production capacity of circulating immune cells, and epigenetic profile by genome-wide DNA methylation of immune cells. Results: Past mild COVID-19 infection had limited long-term immune effects. In contrast, COVID-19 vaccines and especially lockdowns significantly altered both the epigenetic profile in immune cells at DNA methylation level and immune responses. Lockdowns resulted in a strong overall exaggerated immune responsiveness, while COVID-19 vaccines moderately dampened immune responses. Lockdown-associated immune responsiveness alterations were confirmed in 30 healthy volunteers from the 200FG cohort that, like the 2000HIV study, is part of the Human Functional Genomics Project. Discussion: Our data suggest that lockdowns have unforeseen immunological effects. Furthermore, COVID-19 vaccines have immunological effects beyond anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity, and studies of their impact on non-COVID-19 immune-mediated pathology are warranted.
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