Are three zebras more than three frogs: examining conceptual and physical congruency in numerosity judgements of familiar objects.

Researchers in numerical cognition have extensively studied the number sense-the innate human ability to extract numerical information from the environment quickly and effortlessly. Much of this research, however, uses abstract stimuli (e.g., dot configurations) that are also strictly controlled for their low-level visual confounds, such as size. Nonetheless, individuals rarely extract numerical information from abstract stimuli in everyday life. Yet, numerical judgments of familiar objects remain poorly understood and understudied. In the current study, we examined the cognitive mechanisms underlying the numerical decisions of familiar objects. In two experiments, we asked adult participants (Experiment 1) and two groups of children (aged 7-9 years and 11-12 years, Experiment 2) to perform an animal numerosity task (i.e., "Which animal is more numerous?"), while the conceptual congruency (i.e., the congruency between an object's real-life size and its numerosity) and physical congruency (the congruency between the number of items and the total space they occupy on the screen) were manipulated. Results showed that the conceptual congruency effect (i.e., better performance when the animal with a larger size in real life is more numerous) and a physical congruency effect (i.e., better performance when the physically larger animal is more numerous) were present in adults and children. However, the effects differed across the age groups and were also a subject of developmental change. To our knowledge, this study is the first one to demonstrate that conceptual knowledge can interfere with numerosity judgements in a top-down manner. This interference effect is distinct from the bottom-up interference effect, which comes from the physical properties of the set. Our results imply that the number sense is not a standalone core system for numbers but is embedded in a more extensive network where both low-level and higher-order influences are possible. We encourage numerical cognition researchers to consider employing not only abstract but also familiar objects when examining numerosity judgements across the lifespan.