Livestock predation patterns by gray wolves and persian leopards in Iran.

Large carnivore species frequently predate and consume wild or domestic prey, which is referred to as food-related predation. Large carnivores can also hunt and kill prey exceeding their immediate needs (i.e., they do not consume prey), which is referred to as surplus predation. We used 173 records of livestock predations by gray wolves (Canis lupus; n = 133) and Persian leopards (Panthera pardus tulliana; n = 40) reported by governmental organizations of Iran during 2009-2019 to investigate food-related and surplus predation incidents of livestock. We found that for wolves, the number of reported surplus predation incidents was greater than that of food-related predation incidents during all 4 seasons (spring through winter), whereas for leopards, the number of food-related and surplus predation incidents were similar in all seasons. The number of livestock killed per surplus predation incident was greater for wolves than for leopards and that surplus predations by both species occurred more frequently within corrals than on free-range pastures. As corrals in most villages across Iran are poorly constructed and largely accessible to predators, we recommend that livestock owners enhance corral construction, use well-trained dogs during day and particularly at night, employ people to watch livestock at night, and use fire (e.g., torches) during night to scare carnivores. These strategies can mitigate predation incidents and corresponding economic losses, resulting in fewer losses of livestock, wolves, and leopards, as these two carnivore species are mainly killed by humans due to livestock predations across Iran.