State of nano pesticides application in smallholder agriculture production systems: Human and environmental exposure risk perspectives.

Due to the intensive and widespread use of agrochemicals, especially pesticides, agriculture in the majority of the world is in dire need of practical improvements to fulfil the rising need for food while at the same time decreasing its associated health and environmental impact. Traditional methods, such as integrated pest control, have been used extensively and globally for decades to lessen the effects of intensive and extensive pesticide use, but they are insufficient. Safer pesticide alternatives, including biopesticides, to replace conventional pesticides have also been developed, but these efforts have not yet reached the necessary degree of operationalization and commercialization. In light of the challenges and trade-offs involved in using conventional pesticides, nanotechnology has sped up the development of nanopesticides, that are poisonous solely to specific pests and pathogens. The effectiveness of nano-agrochemicals has often demonstrated a median gain compared to traditional products of 20-30 %. The use of nanopesticides may enable more precise pest targeting, reduced pesticide dosage and decreased spray frequencies, allowing for a 10-fold reduction in pesticides dosage without sacrificing effectiveness. However, there are environmental concerns and potential for human exposure associated with the use of nanopesticides. This state-of-the-art review examines the most recent advances in science and the application of nanotechnology as a unique tool to address the serious negative effects of conventional pesticides. In addition to the health and environmental implications, policy and regulatory framework, and field application of nanopesticides in smallholder production systems are all part of the scientific review that is presented in this review.