Exploring the complexity of genome size reduction in angiosperms.

The genome sizes of angiosperms decreased significantly more than the genome sizes of their ancestors (pteridophytes and gymnosperms). Decreases in genome size involve a highly complex process, with remnants of the genome size reduction scattered across the genome and not directly linked to specific genomic structures. This is because the associated mechanisms operate on a much smaller scale than the mechanisms mediating increases in genome size. This review thoroughly summarizes the available literature regarding the molecular mechanisms underlying genome size reductions and introduces Utricularia gibba and Arabidopsis thaliana as model species for the examination of the effects of these molecular mechanisms. Additionally, we propose that phosphorus deficiency and drought stress are the major external factors contributing to decreases in genome size. Considering these factors affect almost all land plants, angiosperms likely gained the mechanisms for genome size reductions. These environmental factors may affect the retention rates of deletions, while also influencing the mutation rates of deletions via the functional diversification of the proteins facilitating double-strand break repair. The biased retention and mutation rates of deletions may have synergistic effects that enhance deletions in intergenic regions, introns, transposable elements, duplicates, and repeats, leading to a rapid decrease in genome size. We suggest that these selection pressures and associated molecular mechanisms may drive key changes in angiosperms during recurrent cycles of genome size decreases and increases.