Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic significance of Tryptophan Metabolism and signaling in cancer.

Tryptophan (Trp) metabolism involves three primary pathways: the kynurenine (Kyn) pathway (KP), the 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin, 5-HT) pathway, and the indole pathway. Under normal physiological conditions, Trp metabolism plays crucial roles in regulating inflammation, immunity, and neuronal function. Key rate-limiting enzymes such as indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), Trp-2,3-dioxygenase (TDO), and kynurenine monooxygenase (KMO) drive these metabolic processes. Imbalances in Trp metabolism are linked to various cancers and often correlate with poor prognosis and adverse clinical characteristics. Dysregulated Trp metabolism fosters tumor growth and immune evasion primarily by creating an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Activation of the KP results in the production of immunosuppressive metabolites like Kyn, which modulate immune responses and promote oncogenesis mainly through interaction with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR). Targeting Trp metabolism therapeutically has shown significant potential, especially with the development of small-molecule inhibitors for IDO1, TDO, and other key enzymes. These inhibitors disrupt the immunosuppressive signals within the TME, potentially restoring effective anti-tumor immune responses. Recently, IDO1 inhibitors have been tested in clinical trials, showing the potential to enhance the effects of existing cancer therapies. However, mixed results in later-stage trials underscore the need for a deeper understanding of Trp metabolism and its complex role in cancer. Recent advancements have also explored combining Trp metabolism inhibitors with other treatments, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, to enhance therapeutic efficacy and overcome resistance mechanisms. This review summarizes the current understanding of Trp metabolism and signaling in cancer, detailing the oncogenic mechanisms and clinical significance of dysregulated Trp metabolism. Additionally, it provides insights into the challenges in developing Trp-targeted therapies and future research directions aimed at optimizing these therapeutic strategies and improving patient outcomes.