In search of mindfulness: a review and reconsideration of cultural dynamics from a cognitive perspective.

We provide a critical review of mindfulness research, focusing on three core areas and questions. First, a meta-review and bibliometric analysis on mindfulness research trends identified a large number of meta-analyses published in the last 20 years, which tend to show positive effects on average, despite continuing questions on research quality, unclear pathways and uncertainty about the efficacy of individual practice components. Second, we briefly review current conceptualizations of mindfulness as both a practice and a trait (individual difference variable) and how these interpretations may align with the diverse Buddhist philosophical roots. We examine the multidimensionality of mindfulness within and across cultural contexts, which points to conflicts between bottom-up (functionalist) and top-down (culturally relativist meaning-system) interpretations. In order to reconcile these interpretations, we introduce a predictive coding approach which allows integrating bottom-up biological and individual difference dynamics with top-down normative and cultural influences. Finally, we apply these ideas to two examples of how mindfulness components might be present in different cultural practices: (a) stoic philosophy and (b) established concepts from Te Ao Māori. We argue that recontextualizing mindfulness in culturally relevant terms provides opportunities to enrich both mindfulness theory and practice, allowing for an integration of cognitive-functional and cultural relativist positions.