Opposing objective and subjective wellbeing outcomes within an environmentally vulnerable delta: a case study of Volta Delta, Ghana.

Introduction: Despite a growing interest in the measurement and conceptualization of wellbeing, the integration within sustainability research, and the understanding of how different wellbeing outcomes relate, is limited. Many studies focus on singular, often objectively measured, outcomes, without acknowledging the breadth of available measures. This approach can result in crucial subjective information, which can be explored to understand actors' behaviors and responses, being omitted from research and policy. This study explores objective and subjective wellbeing outcomes, and how they relate, within an environmentally vulnerable context. Wellbeing and environmental services are intrinsically interlinked, therefore, appropriate policy solutions are required to address human needs and pressures on supporting ecosystems. Methods: This paper uses binary logistic regression modelling, and qualitative participatory rural appraisal methods, to understand the environmental conditions, including climatic hazards and landscape characteristics, associated with households experiencing different objective/subjective wellbeing outcomes within Volta Delta, Ghana. Results: The mixed method approach highlights a differing relationship between inland agricultural areas impacted by drought and erosion, and coastal/riverine, peri-urban landscapes exposed to flooding and salinization. Agricultural areas associate with "poor but happy" outcomes, whereas peri-urban landscapes associate with being "non-poor but unhappy." Drawing on existing literature, and both quantitative and qualitative results, these varying outcomes are hypothesized to be driven by differences in livelihood vulnerability, relative comparisons to others, responses to climatic hazards, and individualistic/collective wellbeing conceptualizations. Discussion: Our study concludes that environmental conditions influence objective and subjective wellbeing through different mechanisms. Sustainable development research should incorporate both objective and subjective measures when implementing and monitoring policy to more comprehensibly capture, and improve, wellbeing in environmentally vulnerable locations.