ArticlePloS one2024
Long-term brain fog and cognitive impairment in previously hospitalized COVID-19 patients.
Article in PloS one, 2024. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 7 papers, 1 of them a synthesis that pooled it.
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Who cites it
7 citing papers in PubMed, 1 synthesis or guideline pooled it.
- Prevalence and long-term outcomes of brain fog and cognitive impairment in individuals with long COVID: A systematic review.Medicine · 2026Pooled it
- Screening for Neurocognitive Abilities Post-COVID (SNAP-COVID): Scale Development and Validation.Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania) · 2026Article
- Cognitive Trajectories After Hospitalization for COVID-19: A 36-Month Longitudinal Study.The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences · 2026Article
- Post-COVID-19 condition and disparities in daily functional activities in England: a retrospective analysis of data from the Virus Watch community cohort.The Lancet. Primary care · 2026Article
- Brain fog symptoms in individuals with and without post COVID-19 condition: translation and validation of the brain fog scale.Frontiers in psychiatry · 2026Article
- The Molecular Mechanisms of Cognitive Dysfunction in Long COVID: A Narrative Review.International journal of molecular sciences · 2025Review
- Role of Gut Microbiota in Long COVID: Impact on Immune Function and Organ System Health.Archives of microbiology & immunology · 2025Article
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Authors and funding
12 authors.
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Abstract
objectivesLimited research exists on COVID-19 associated brain fog, and on the long-term cognitive and psychiatric sequelae in racially and ethnically diverse patients. We characterize the neuropsychological sequelae of post-acute COVID-19 in a diverse cohort and investigate whether COVID-19 clinical severity remains associated with brain fog and cognitive deficits approximately 2 years post infection.
methodsA cross-sectional study of patients with a history of COVID-19 hospitalization (March-September 2020). COVID-19 clinical severity was indexed using the National Early Warning Score 2 and a comprehensive neuropsychological tele-battery was administered 2 years post discharge. Pearson's r correlations assessed association, while independent sample t-tests examined group differences. Significant outcomes were further analyzed using multiple regression and ANCOVAs, adjusting for key covariates.
resultsIn 41 adult patients (19 female, 30 Hispanic, 13 Black, mean age of 65 (SD = 15), COVID-19 level of severity was associated with greater number of endorsed brain fog symptoms (Pearson's r = .34, 95% CI [.04, .59]), worse overall cognitive functioning (global cognition: r = -.36, 95% CI [-.61, -.05]) and reduced performance on an attention and working memory task (digit span backwards: r = -.41, 95% CI [-.66, -.09]) at 2-year follow-up. Brain fog symptoms most associated with COVID-19 severity included difficulty focusing (r = .46, 95% CI [.18, .67]), detached (r = .41, 95% CI [.12, .64]) and feeling sleepy (r = .40, 95% CI [.11, .63]). Patients' cognitive performance was generally below average (global cognition z-score: M = -.96, SD = .66), with group differences based on sex and ethnicity evidenced on individual cognitive tests. DISCUSSION: This study emphasizes the importance of continued research on the long-term effects of COVID-19 infection on neuropsychological outcomes, particularly among underrepresented, health-disparate groups. Greater understanding of these associations could improve detection and treatment of those at increased risk of cognitive decline or impairment.
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