Adrenal and metabolic hormones demonstrate risk-reward trade-offs for African elephants foraging in human-dominated landscapes.

A key driver of the African savannah elephant population decline is the loss of habitat and associated human-elephant conflict. Elephant physiological responses to these pressures, however, are largely unknown. To address this knowledge gap, we evaluated faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations as an indicator of adrenal activity and faecal thyroid metabolite (fT3) concentrations as an indicator of metabolic activity in relation to land use, livestock density, and human landscape modification, while controlling for the effects of seasonality and primary productivity (measured using the normalized difference vegetation index). Our best-fit model found that fGCM concentrations to be elevated during the dry season, in areas with higher human modification index values, and those with more agropastoral activities and livestock. There was also a negative relationship between primary productivity and fGCM concentrations. We found fT3 concentrations to be higher during the wet season, in agropastoral landscapes, in locations with higher human activity, and in areas with no livestock. This study highlights how elephants balance nutritional rewards and risks in foraging decisions when using human-dominated landscapes, results that can serve to better interpret elephant behaviour at the human-wildlife interface and contribute to more insightful conservation strategies.