ArticleVirus evolution2024
High pathogenic avian influenza A(H5) viruses of clade 2.3.4.4b in Europe-Why trends of virus evolution are more difficult to predict.
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83 citing papers in PubMed.
- Multiple introductions and spread of novel reassortant highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b viruses via wild birds, South Korea, 2024-2025.Veterinary research · 2026Article
- Counting cases, conserving species: addressing highly pathogenic avian influenza in wildlife.Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · 2026Review
- Avian influenza overview June-August 2026.EFSA journal. European Food Safety Authority · 2026Article
- Mammary Gland Tropism and Milk-Mediated Transmission of H5N1 in Dairy Cattle: Implications for One Health Surveillance.Veterinary sciences · 2026Review
- Article
- Multiple introductions of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses into the High Arctic: Svalbard and Jan Mayen, 2022-2025.The Journal of general virology · 2026Article
- Coding complete genome of LPAI H16N3 virus from Australia suggests intercontinental movement.Microbiology resource announcements · 2026Article
- Host Species Contribution to the Spatiotemporal Dynamics of the 2024-2025 H5N1 Epidemic in Italy.Influenza and other respiratory viruses · 2026Article
- Rapid expansion of genotype D1.1 A(H5N1) influenza viruses in wild birds across North America during the 2024 migratory season.Nature medicine · 2026Article
- Emergence and Rapid Spread of a New Reassortant High Pathogenicity H5N1 Clade 2.3.4.4b Avian Influenza Virus in Nigeria.Influenza and other respiratory viruses · 2026Article
- Emergence of D1.1 reassortant H5N1 avian influenza viruses in North America.bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology · 2026Article
- Evaluation of Cross-Immunogenicity of Ferret Antisera Following Immunization with H5N1 Vaccine Strains.Vaccines · 2026Article
- Two decades (2005 to 2025) of avian influenza research trends, knowledge gaps and distribution of emerging H5N1 2.3.4.4b clade in South Asia.One health outlook · 2026Article
- Evaluation of beta-propiolactone and AVL-ethanol inactivation protocols for highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in allantoic fluid and cell culture.Applied and environmental microbiology · 2026Article
- Genomic features associated with sustained mammalian transmission of avian influenza A viruses.Nature microbiology · 2026Article
- An intranasal adenoviral-vectored vaccine protects against highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 in naive and antigen-experienced animals.Cell reports. Medicine · 2026Article
- Integrated approaches to explore temporal-spatial changes in gene reassortment of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5) virus in Eurasia, 2000-2023.Scientific reports · 2026Article
- Fatal H5N1 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza with Retrograde Neuroinvasion in a Free-Ranging Leopard Cat (Animals : an open access journal from MDPI · 2026Article
- The role of wild birds in the global highly pathogenic avian influenza H5 panzootic, 2020-2023.npj biodiversity · 2026Review
- Article
23 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
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Authors and funding
58 authors.
Alice FusaroEuropean Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'universita 10, Legnaro, Padua 35020, Italy.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8213-5472
Bianca ZecchinEuropean Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'universita 10, Legnaro, Padua 35020, Italy.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9566-6531
Edoardo GiussaniEuropean Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'universita 10, Legnaro, Padua 35020, Italy.
Elisa PalumboEuropean Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'universita 10, Legnaro, Padua 35020, Italy.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5812-6760
Montserrat Agüero-GarcíaMinistry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Laboratorio Central de Veterinaria (LCV), Ctra. M-106, Km 1,4 Algete, Madrid 28110, Spain.
Claudia BachofenFederal Department of Home Affairs FDHA Institute of Virology and Immunology IVI, Sensemattstrasse 293, Mittelhäusern 3147, Switzerland.
Ádám BálintVeterinary Diagnostic Directorate (NEBIH), Laboratory of Virology, National Food Chain Safety Office, Tábornok utca 2, Budapest 1143, Hungary.
Fereshteh BanihashemDepartment of Microbiology, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), Travvägen 20, Uppsala 75189, Sweden.
Ashley C BanyardWOAH/FAO international reference laboratory for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.
Nancy BeerensDepartment of Virology Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Houtribweg 39, Lelystad 8221 RA, The Netherlands.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6756-4431
Manon BourgLuxembourgish Veterinary and Food Administration (ALVA), State Veterinary Laboratory, 1 Rue Louis Rech, Dudelange 3555, Luxembourg.
Francois-Xavier BriandAgence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire, de l'Alimentation, de l'Environnement et du Travail, Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort, Unité de Virologie, Immunologie, Parasitologie Avaires et Cunicoles, 41 Rue de Beaucemaine - BP 53, Ploufragan 22440, France.
Caroline BröjerDepartment of Pathology and Wildlife Disease, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), Travvägen 20, Uppsala 75189, Sweden.
Ian H BrownWOAH/FAO international reference laboratory for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.
Brigitte BruggerIcelandic Food and Veterinary Authority, Austurvegur 64, Selfoss 800, Iceland.ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0004-1010-0387
Alexander M P ByrneWOAH/FAO international reference laboratory for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.
Armend CanaKosovo Food and Veterinary Agency, Sector of Serology and Molecular Diagnostics, Kosovo Food and Veterinary Laboratory, Str Lidhja e Pejes, Prishtina 10000, Kosovo.
Vasiliki ChristodoulouLaboratory for Animal Health Virology Section Veterinary Services (1417), 79, Athalassa Avenue Aglantzia, Nicosia 2109, Cyprus.
Zuzana DirbakovaDepartment of Animal Health, State Veterinary Institute, Pod Dráhami 918, Zvolen 96086, Slovakia.
Teresa FagulhaI.P. (INIAV, I.P.), Avenida da República, Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária e Veterinária, Quinta do Marquês, Oeiras 2780 - 157, Portugal.
Ron A M FouchierDepartment of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Dr. Molewaterplein 40, Rotterdam 3015 GD, The Netherlands.
Laura Garza-CuarteroDepartment of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory (CVRL), Backweston Campus, Stacumny Lane, Celbridge, Co. Kildare W23 X3PH, Ireland.
George GeorgiadesThessaloniki Veterinary Centre (TVC), Department of Avian Diseases, 26th October Street 80, Thessaloniki 54627, Greece.
Britt GjersetImmunology & Virology department, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Arboretveien 57, Oslo Pb 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway.
Beatrice GraslandAgence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire, de l'Alimentation, de l'Environnement et du Travail, Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort, Unité de Virologie, Immunologie, Parasitologie Avaires et Cunicoles, 41 Rue de Beaucemaine - BP 53, Ploufragan 22440, France.
Oxana GrozaRepublican Center for Veterinary Diagnostics (NRL), 3 street Murelor, Chisinau 2051, Republic of Moldova.
Timm HarderInstitute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems 17493, Germany.
Ana Margarida HenriquesI.P. (INIAV, I.P.), Avenida da República, Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária e Veterinária, Quinta do Marquês, Oeiras 2780 - 157, Portugal.
Charlotte Kristiane HjulsagerDepartment for Virus and Microbiological Special Diagnostics, Statens Serum Institut, 5 Artillerivej, Copenhagen DK-2300, Denmark.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7557-8876
Emiliya IvanovaNational Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, National Diagnostic and Research Veterinary Medical Institute (NDRVMI), 190 Lomsko Shose Blvd., Sofia 1231, Bulgaria.
Zygimantas JaneliunasNational Food and Veterinary Risk Assessment Institute (NFVRAI), Kairiukscio str. 10, Vilnius 08409, Lithuania.
Laura KrivkoInstitute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment (BIOR), Laboratory of Microbilogy and Pathology, 3 Lejupes Street, Riga 1076, Latvia.
Ken LemonVirological Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Veterinary Sciences Division, Department of Virology, Agri-Food and Bioscience Institute (AFBI), Stoney Road, Belfast BT4 3SD, Northern Ireland.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9844-1573
Yuan LiangDepartment of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark.
Aldin LikaAnimal Health Department, Food Safety and Veterinary Institute, Rruga Aleksandër Moisiu 10, Tirana 1001, Albania.
Péter MalikVeterinary Diagnostic Directorate (NEBIH), Laboratory of Virology, National Food Chain Safety Office, Tábornok utca 2, Budapest 1143, Hungary.
Michael J McMenamyVirological Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Veterinary Sciences Division, Department of Virology, Agri-Food and Bioscience Institute (AFBI), Stoney Road, Belfast BT4 3SD, Northern Ireland.
Alexander NagyDepartment of Molecular Biology, State Veterinary Institute Prague, Sídlištní 136/24, Praha 6-Lysolaje 16503, Czech Republic.
Imbi NurmojaNational Centre for Laboratory Research and Risk Assessment (LABRIS), Kreutzwaldi 30, Tartu 51006, Estonia.
Iuliana OnitaInstitute for Diagnosis and Animal Health (IDAH), Str. Dr. Staicovici 63, Bucharest 050557, Romania.
Anne PohlmannInstitute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems 17493, Germany.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5318-665X
Sandra Revilla-FernándezAustrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Institute for Veterinary Disease Control, Robert Koch Gasse 17, Mödling 2340, Austria.
Azucena Sánchez-SánchezMinistry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Laboratorio Central de Veterinaria (LCV), Ctra. M-106, Km 1,4 Algete, Madrid 28110, Spain.
Vladimir SavicCroatian Veterinary Institute, Poultry Centre, Heinzelova 55, Zagreb 10000, Croatia.
Brigita SlavecUniversity of Ljubljana - Veterinary Faculty/National Veterinary Institute, Gerbičeva 60, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia.
Krzysztof SmietankaDepartment of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantow 57, Puławy 24-100, Poland.
Chantal J SnoeckLuxembourg Institute of Health (LIH), Department of Infection and Immunity, 29 Rue Henri Koch, Esch-sur-Alzette 4354, Luxembourg.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0000-1850
Mieke SteenselsAvian Virology and Immunology, Sciensano, Rue Groeselenberg 99, Ukkel 1180, Ukkel, Belgium.
Vilhjálmur SvanssonBiomedical Center, Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldnavegi 3 112 Reykjavík Ssn. 650269 4549, Keldur 851, Iceland.
Edyta SwietonDepartment of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantow 57, Puławy 24-100, Poland.
Niina TammirantaFinnish Food Authority, Animal Health Diagnostic Unit, Veterinary Virology, Mustialankatu 3, Helsinki FI-00790, Finland.
Martin TinakDepartment of Animal Health, State Veterinary Institute, Pod Dráhami 918, Zvolen 96086, Slovakia.
Steven Van BormAvian Virology and Immunology, Sciensano, Rue Groeselenberg 99, Ukkel 1180, Ukkel, Belgium.
Siamak ZohariDepartment of Microbiology, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), Travvägen 20, Uppsala 75189, Sweden.
Cornelia AdlhochEuropean Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Gustav III:s boulevard 40, Solna 169 73, Sweden.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8842-0469
Francesca BaldinelliEuropean Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Via Carlo Magno 1A, Parma 43126, Italy.
Calogero TerreginoEuropean Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'universita 10, Legnaro, Padua 35020, Italy.
Isabella MonneEuropean Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'universita 10, Legnaro, Padua 35020, Italy.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Since 2016, A(H5Nx) high pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus of clade 2.3.4.4b has become one of the most serious global threats not only to wild and domestic birds, but also to public health. In recent years, important changes in the ecology, epidemiology, and evolution of this virus have been reported, with an unprecedented global diffusion and variety of affected birds and mammalian species. After the two consecutive and devastating epidemic waves in Europe in 2020-2021 and 2021-2022, with the second one recognized as one of the largest epidemics recorded so far, this clade has begun to circulate endemically in European wild bird populations. This study used the complete genomes of 1,956 European HPAI A(H5Nx) viruses to investigate the virus evolution during this varying epidemiological outline. We investigated the spatiotemporal patterns of A(H5Nx) virus diffusion to/from and within Europe during the 2020-2021 and 2021-2022 epidemic waves, providing evidence of ongoing changes in transmission dynamics and disease epidemiology. We demonstrated the high genetic diversity of the circulating viruses, which have undergone frequent reassortment events, providing for the first time a complete overview and a proposed nomenclature of the multiple genotypes circulating in Europe in 2020-2022. We described the emergence of a new genotype with gull adapted genes, which offered the virus the opportunity to occupy new ecological niches, driving the disease endemicity in the European wild bird population. The high propensity of the virus for reassortment, its jumps to a progressively wider number of host species, including mammals, and the rapid acquisition of adaptive mutations make the trend of virus evolution and spread difficult to predict in this unfailing evolving scenario.
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Europehigh pathogenic avian influenza A(H5) virusesphylodynamicsreassortmentsspatial spread
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