Understanding phloem's role in long-distance transport and accumulation of arsenic (As) in rice: toward low-As-accumulating grain development.

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conclusionThis review highlights the roles of phloem in the long-distance transport and accumulation of As in rice plants, facilitating the formulation of new strategies to reduce the grain As content. Rice is a staple diet for a significant proportion of the global population. As toxicity is a major issue affecting the rice productivity and quality worldwide. Phloem tissues of rice plants play vital roles in As speciation, long-distance transport, and unloading, thereby controlling the As accumulation in rice grains. Phloem transport accounts for a significant proportion of As transport to grains, ranging from 54 to 100% depending on the species [inorganic arsenate (As(V)), arsenite (As(III)), or organic dimethylarsinic acid (DMA(V)]. However, the specific mechanism of As transport through phloem leading to its accumulation in grains remains unknown. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanism of phloem-mediated As transport is necessary to determine the roles of phloem in long-distance As transport and subsequently reduce the grain As content via biotechnological interventions. This review discusses the roles of phloem tissues in the long-distance transport and accumulation of As in rice grains. This review also highlights the biotechnological approaches using critical genetic factors involved in nodal accumulation, vacuolar sequestration, and cellular efflux of As in phloem- or phloem-associated tissues. Furthermore, the limitations of existing transgenic techniques are outlined to facilitate the formulation of novel strategies for the development of rice with reduced grain As content.