The use of real-world data for clinical investigation of effectiveness in drug development.

With the growing interest in leveraging real-world data (RWD) to support effectiveness evaluations for new indications, new target populations, and post-market performance, the United States Food and Drug Administration has published several guidance documents on RWD sources and real-world studies (RWS) to assist sponsors in generating credible real-world evidence (RWE). Meanwhile, the randomized controlled trial (RCT) remains the gold standard in drug evaluation. Along this line, we propose a hybrid two-stage adaptive design to evaluate effectiveness based on evidence from both RCT and RWS. At the first stage, a typical non-inferiority test is conducted using RCT data to test for not-ineffectiveness. Once not-ineffectiveness is established, the study proceeds to the second stage to conduct an RWS and test for effectiveness using integrated information from RCT and RWD. The composite likelihood approach is implemented as a down-weighing strategy to account for the impact of high variability in RWS population. An optimal sample size determination procedure for RCT and RWS is introduced, aiming to achieve the minimal expected sample size. Through extensive numerical study, the proposed design demonstrates the ability to control type I error inflation in most cases and consistently maintain statistical power above the desired level. In general, this RCT/RWS hybrid two-stage adaptive design is beneficial for effectiveness evaluations in drug development, especially for oncology and rare diseases.