Ocular and systemic vascular endothelial growth factor ligand inhibitor use and nephrotoxicity: an update.

Tumor growth is intricately linked to the process of angiogenesis, with a key role played by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its associated signaling pathways. Notably, these pathways also play a pivotal "housekeeping" role in renal physiology. Over the past decade, the utilization of VEGF signaling inhibitors has seen a substantial rise in the treatment of diverse solid organ tumors, diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and various ocular diseases. However, this increased use of such agents has led to a higher frequency of encountering renal adverse effects in clinical practice. This review comprehensively addresses the incidence, pathophysiological mechanisms, and current evidence concerning renal adverse events associated with systemic and intravitreal antiangiogenic therapies targeting VEGF-A and its receptors (VEGFR) and their associated signaling pathways. Additionally, we briefly explore strategies for mitigating potential risks linked to the use of these agents and effectively managing various renal adverse events, including but not limited to hypertension, proteinuria, renal dysfunction, and electrolyte imbalances.