Evidence map›Paper›PMID 38396274›Full record

ArticleInternational journal of behavioral medicine2025

Longer-Term Mental Health Consequences of COVID-19 Infection: Moderation by Race and Socioeconomic Status.

Michelle K Williams, Christopher A Crawford, Tamika C Zapolski, Adam T Hirsh, Jesse C Stewart

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Article in International journal of behavioral medicine, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 1 paper.

0numbers the graph read from it
0cells of the map it votes in
1citing papers in PubMed
–field-weighted citation impact
1 · What the graph read from it

What it found

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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.

2 · The registry

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3 · Its place in the literature

Who cites it

1 citing paper in PubMed.

  1. Review
4 · The record

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PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.

5 · Who and what money

Authors and funding

5 authors.

Michelle K WilliamsDepartment of Psychology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), 402 North Blackford Street, LD100E, 46202, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
Christopher A CrawfordDepartment of Psychology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), 402 North Blackford Street, LD100E, 46202, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
Tamika C ZapolskiDepartment of Psychology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), 402 North Blackford Street, LD100E, 46202, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
Adam T HirshDepartment of Psychology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), 402 North Blackford Street, LD100E, 46202, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
Jesse C StewartDepartment of Psychology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), 402 North Blackford Street, LD100E, 46202, Indianapolis, IN, USA. jstew@iupui.edu.

Funding

No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.

6 · The paper itself

Abstract

objectiveWhile evidence suggests that the mental health symptoms of COVID-19 can persist for several months following infection, little is known about the longer-term mental health effects and whether certain sociodemographic groups may be particularly impacted. This cross-sectional study aimed to characterize the longer-term mental health consequences of COVID-19 infection and examine whether such consequences are more pronounced in Black people and people with lower socioeconomic status.

methods277 Black and White adults (age ≥ 30 years) with a history of COVID-19 (tested positive ≥ 6 months prior to participation) or no history of COVID-19 infection completed a 45-minute online questionnaire battery.

resultsPeople with a history of COVID-19 had greater depressive (d = 0.24), anxiety (d = 0.34), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (d = 0.32), and insomnia (d = 0.31) symptoms than those without a history of COVID-19. These differences remained for anxiety, PTSD, and insomnia symptoms after adjusting for age, sex, race, education, income, employment status, body mass index, and smoking status. No differences were detected for perceived stress and general psychopathology. People with a history of COVID-19 had more than double the odds of clinically significant symptoms of anxiety (OR = 2.22) and PTSD (OR = 2.40). Education, but not race, income, or employment status, moderated relationships of interest such that COVID-19 status was more strongly and positively associated with all the mental health outcomes for those with fewer years of education.

conclusionThe mental health consequences of COVID-19 may be significant, widespread, and persistent for at least 6 months post-infection and may increase as years of education decreases.

Indexed as

AnxietyCOVID-19DepressionSleep Initiation and Maintenance DisordersStress Disorders, Post-TraumaticAdultAgedBlack or African AmericanCross-Sectional StudiesFemaleHumansMaleMental HealthMiddle AgedSARS-CoV-2Social ClassAnxietyDepressionHealth DisparitiesInsomniaLong COVIDPosttraumatic Stress

Identifiers

PMID38396274

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Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.