Evidence map›Paper›PMID 38229886›Full record

ReviewHealth and technology2024

The underuse of AI in the health sector: Opportunity costs, success stories, risks and recommendations.

Ugo Pagallo, Shane O'Sullivan, Nathalie Nevejans, Andreas Holzinger, Michael Friebe, Fleur Jeanquartier, Claire Jean-Quartier, Arkadiusz Miernik

Abstract readReview
In one paragraph

Review in Health and technology, 2024. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 20 papers.

0numbers the graph read from it
0cells of the map it votes in
20citing papers in PubMed
–field-weighted citation impact
1 · What the graph read from it

What it found

Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.

The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.

2 · The registry

The trial behind it

Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.

Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.

3 · Its place in the literature

Who cites it

20 citing papers in PubMed.

  1. Article
  2. Article
  3. Article
  4. Article
  5. Review
  6. MedCOD: Enhancing English-to-Spanish Medical Translation of Large Language Models Using Enriched Chain-of-Dictionary Framework.Findings of ACL. EMNLP. Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing · 2025
    Article
  7. Article
  8. Performance of AI Chatbots in Preliminary Diagnosis of Maxillofacial Pathologies.Medical science monitor : international medical journal of experimental and clinical research · 2025
    Article
  9. Article
  10. Article
  11. Article
  12. Article
  13. Article
  14. Review
  15. Article
  16. Article
  17. Article
  18. Review
  19. Article
  20. Article
4 · The record

Corrections and comments

PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.

5 · Who and what money

Authors and funding

8 authors.

Ugo PagalloLaw School, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.ORCID 0000-0001-7981-8849
Shane O'SullivanDepartment of Urology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg - Medical Centre, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany.ORCID 0000-0003-4287-7380
Nathalie NevejansEthics and Procedures Center (CDEP), Faculty of Law of Douai, University of Artois, Arras, France.ORCID 0000-0003-0030-2984
Andreas HolzingerHuman-Centered AI Lab, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.ORCID 0000-0002-6786-5194
Michael FriebeDepartment of Measurements and Electronics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Krak'ow, Poland.ORCID 0000-0002-8624-0800
Fleur JeanquartierHuman-Centered AI Lab, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.ORCID 0000-0001-8607-9255
Claire Jean-QuartierHuman-Centered AI Lab, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.ORCID 0000-0002-0840-2173
Arkadiusz MiernikDepartment of Urology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg - Medical Centre, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany.ORCID 0000-0001-5894-9647

Funding

No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.

6 · The paper itself

Abstract

Purpose: This contribution explores the underuse of artificial intelligence (AI) in the health sector, what this means for practice, and how much the underuse can cost. Attention is drawn to the relevance of an issue that the European Parliament has outlined as a "major threat" in 2020. At its heart is the risk that research and development on trusted AI systems for medicine and digital health will pile up in lab centers without generating further practical relevance. Our analysis highlights why researchers, practitioners and especially policymakers, should pay attention to this phenomenon. Methods: The paper examines the ways in which governments and public agencies are addressing the underuse of AI. As governments and international organizations often acknowledge the limitations of their own initiatives, the contribution explores the causes of the current issues and suggests ways to improve initiatives for digital health. Results: Recommendations address the development of standards, models of regulatory governance, assessment of the opportunity costs of underuse of technology, and the urgency of the problem. Conclusions: The exponential pace of AI advances and innovations makes the risks of underuse of AI increasingly threatening. Graphical Abstract:

Indexed as

AI in MedicineAI LawAI PolicyEthics of AIRegulation of AIUnderutilization of AI

Identifiers

PMID38229886
PMCPMC10788319

What OpenQuestion holds

Textmetadata
LicenceCC BY
Read underepoch 390

Registered trials

None linked

Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.