Connective tissue disease-associated pulmonary hypertension: A comprehensive review.

Connective tissue diseases (CTDs) can be associated with various forms of pulmonary hypertension, including pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), pulmonary veno-occlusive disease, pulmonary venous hypertension, interstitial lung disease-associated pulmonary hypertension, chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension, and sometimes a combination of several processes. The prevalence of PAH varies among the different CTDs, with systemic sclerosis (SSc) having the highest at 8%-12%. The most recent European Society of Cardiology/European Respiratory Society guidelines recommend routine annual screening for PAH in SSc and CTDs with SSc features. As CTDs can be associated with a myriad of presentations of pulmonary hypertension, a thorough evaluation to include a right heart catheterization to clearly delineate the hemodynamic profile is essential in developing an appropriate treatment plan. Treatment strategies will depend on the predominant phenotype of pulmonary vasculopathy. In general, management approach to CTD-PAH mirrors that of idiopathic PAH. Despite this, outcomes of CTD-PAH are inferior to those of idiopathic PAH, with those of SSc-PAH being particularly poor. Reasons for this may include extrapulmonary manifestations of CTDs, including renal disease and gastrointestinal involvement, concurrent interstitial lung disease, and differences in the innate response of the right ventricle to increased pulmonary vascular resistance. Early referral for lung transplant evaluation of patients with CTD-PAH, particularly SSc-PAH, is recommended. It is hoped that in the near future, additional therapies may be added to the armamentarium of effective treatments for CTD-PAH. Ultimately, a better understanding of the pathogenesis of CTD-PAH will be required to develop targeted therapies for this morbid condition.