Effects of ingested essential oils and propolis extracts on honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) health and gut microbiota.

Managed honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Apis mellifera Linnaeus) hives require frequent human inputs to maintain colony health and productivity. A variety of plant natural products (PNPs) are delivered via feeding to control diseases and reduce the use of synthetic chemical treatments. However, despite their prevalent use in beekeeping, there is limited information regarding the impact of ingested PNPs on bee health. Here, we tested the effects of different essential oils and propolis extracts on honey bee life span, nutrient assimilation, xenobiotic detoxification, and gut microbiota abundance. Brazilian propolis extract lengthened worker life span, while the other PNPs (Louisiana propolis extract, lemongrass oil, spearmint oil, and thyme oil) exerted variable and dose-dependent effects on life span. Vitellogenin (vg) gene expression was reduced by Brazilian propolis extract at high doses. Expression of CYP6AS1, a detoxification-related gene, was reduced by low doses of thyme oil. The abundances of 8 core gut microbiota taxa were largely unaffected by host consumption of PNPs. Our results suggest that in addition to propolis's structural and immunomodulatory roles in the colony, it may also exert beneficial health effects when ingested. Thyme oil, a commonly used hive treatment, was toxic at field-realistic dosages, and its use as a feed additive should be viewed with caution until its effects on bee health are more thoroughly investigated. We conclude that the tested propolis extracts, lemongrass oil, and spearmint oil are generally safe for bee consumption, with some apparent health-promoting effects.