Primates and disability: Behavioral flexibility and implications for resilience to environmental change.

Congenital malformations, conditions, injuries, and illness can lead to long-term physical impairment and disability in nonhuman primates. How individual primates change their behaviors flexibly to compensate for their disabilities can inform our understanding of their resilience and ability to adjust to environmental change. Here, we synthesize the literature on nonhuman primates and disability, addressing the questions: how does disability influence behavior in primates? What insights can we take from the literature to better understand and predict the capacity of primates to modify their behaviors in the face of human-induced environmental change? We conducted a systematic review of the literature on spontaneous physical impairment and disability in captive, free-ranging, and wild primates. We surveyed 2807 articles on Web of Science and Scopus and identified 114 studies that fit our predetermined inclusion criteria. Behavioral plasticity, maternal and conspecific care, and the potential for innovation of novel behaviors allow many primates with disabilities to compensate when faced with challenges that are outside the scope of usual circumstances. We also found that 60% of the publications connected primate physical impairment and disability to human activities, suggesting an entangled relationship among humans, the environment, and primate disability. Disability and physical impairments provide an opportunity to examine how primates modify their behavior when presented with challenging conditions, and their potential resilience to a changing environment.