ArticleInvestigative ophthalmology & visual science2023
Time Spent Outdoors Partly Accounts for the Effect of Education on Myopia.
Article in Investigative ophthalmology & visual science, 2023. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 21 papers, 3 of them syntheses that pooled it.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
21 citing papers in PubMed, 3 syntheses or guidelines pooled it, 23 citations in OpenAlex.
- Effects of table tennis on vision in children and adolescents: a multilevel dose-response meta-analysis.Frontiers in medicine · 2026Pooled it
- Interventions for myopia control in children: a living systematic review and network meta-analysis.The Cochrane database of systematic reviews · 2025Pooled it
- Pooled it
- Effect of full spectrum indoor lighting on myopia progression in school-aged children: a prospective cohort study.Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology = Albrecht von Graefes Archiv fur klinische und experimentelle Ophthalmologie · 2026Article
- Beyond Screen Time: A Measurement Framework for Behavioral Exposures in Childhood Myopia.Life (Basel, Switzerland) · 2026Review
- Effectiveness and implementation of an intervention strategy-based health promoting schools framework to reduce idiopathic scoliosis and myopia among children and adolescents in Shanghai, China: study protocol.BMC public health · 2026Article
- Gene-Environment Interaction Loci Associated with Refractive Error: SCAMPI Analysis.Ophthalmology science · 2026Article
- Using deep learning to explore the impacts of street-view green space on school myopia prevalence: a multicenter, cross-sectional study.Scientific reports · 2026Article
- Prevalence of insufficient outdoor activity and caregiver-related correlates among school-aged children in Beijing, China: a cross-sectional analysis.Frontiers in public health · 2026Article
- Identifying and Managing Pre-Myopia: A Narrative Review.Clinical ophthalmology (Auckland, N.Z.) · 2026Review
- Hyperopic reserve insufficiency and myopic pre-disposition in pre-school children aged 3-6 years: a large-scale cross-sectional survey.Frontiers in medicine · 2026Article
- Visual development cohort study on refractive parameters among preschool children in Sucheng district.BMC ophthalmology · 2025Article
- Mendelian Randomization Studies of Myopia: Choosing the Right Summary Statistics.Investigative ophthalmology & visual science · 2025Article
- IMI-Myopia Genetics Report.Investigative ophthalmology & visual science · 2025Review
- Multiple trajectories of life style indicators and their links to myopia in the middle school students: A five-year cohort study.Scientific reports · 2025Article
- IMI-2025 Digest.Investigative ophthalmology & visual science · 2025Article
- Causal relationship between multiple types of food intake and myopia: a Mendelian randomization study.International journal of ophthalmology · 2025Article
- Trends in myopia prevalence among late adolescents in South Korea: a population-level study and future projections up to 2050.BMJ open ophthalmology · 2024Article
- Cultural roots of the myopia boom in Confucian Asia and their implications.Journal of public health policy · 2024Review
- Estimating the True Effect of Lifestyle Risk Factors for Myopia: A Longitudinal Study of UK Children.Translational vision science & technology · 2024Article
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
11 authors at 6 institutions in 6 countries.
Funding
Abstract
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate if education contributes to the risk of myopia because educational activities typically occur indoors or because of other factors, such as prolonged near viewing. Methods: This was a two-sample Mendelian randomization study. Participants were from the UK Biobank, Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, and Generation R. Genetic variants associated with years spent in education or time spent outdoors were used as instrumental variables. The main outcome measures were: (1) spherical equivalent refractive error attained by adulthood, and (2) risk of an early age-of-onset of spectacle wear (EAOSW), defined as an age-of-onset of 15 years or below. Results: Time spent outdoors was found to have a small genetic component (heritability 9.8%) that tracked from childhood to adulthood. A polygenic score for time outdoors was associated with children's time outdoors; a polygenic score for years spent in education was inversely associated with children's time outdoors. Accounting for the relationship between time spent outdoors and myopia in a multivariable Mendelian randomization analysis reduced the size of the causal effect of more years in education on myopia to -0.17 diopters (D) per additional year of formal education (95% confidence interval [CI] = -0.32 to -0.01) compared with the estimate from a univariable Mendelian randomization analysis of -0.27 D per year (95% CI = -0.41 to -0.13). Comparable results were obtained for the outcome EAOSW. Conclusions: Accounting for the effects of time outdoors reduced the estimated causal effect of education on myopia by 40%. These results suggest about half of the relationship between education and myopia may be mediated by children not being outdoors during schooling.
Indexed as
Identifiers
What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.