A multidisciplinary overview on the Tupi-speaking people expansion.

The cultural and biological diversity of South American indigenous groups represent extremes of human variability, exhibiting one of the highest linguistic diversities alongside a remarkably low within-population genetic variation and an extremely high inter-population genetic differentiation. On top of that, this region has seen some of the most dramatic demographic events in human history unleashed by the European colonization of the Americas. As a result of this process, the distribution of indigenous populations has been radically changed. In this review we focus on the Tupi, the largest and most widespread linguistic family in eastern South America. Tupi are believed to have originated in southwestern Amazon, from where some of its subfamilies expanded into other parts of the Amazon and, in the case of the Tupi-Guarani, beyond its borders. Recent evidence from archaeology, linguistics, and genetics aligns with José Brochado's Tupi Expansion model. He proposed that the gradual development of agricultural systems within the Amazon resulted in population growth and, eventually, territorial expansion. This model also supports separate Tupi Expansion branches: Tupinambá (Atlantic coast) and Guarani (south, midwest Brazil). Although being the most populous group on Brazil's Atlantic coast, which was the most affected by European colonization, the Tupi still account for roughly 20% of the country's overall indigenous population. Finally, despite its importance and more than a century of research on the Tupi and their expansion history, many key questions remain unanswered, which we attempt to summarize and explore here.