ArticleBMC immunology2023
Long-term humoral and cellular immunity after primary SARS-CoV-2 infection: a 20-month longitudinal study.
Article in BMC immunology, 2023. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 13 papers.
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Who cites it
13 citing papers in PubMed, 20 citations in OpenAlex.
- Expanding SARS-CoV-2 antigen targets beyond spike using a baculovirus expression system.Scientific reports · 2026Article
- Cellular Immunological Memory T Cells andDiagnostics (Basel, Switzerland) · 2025Article
- Long-Term Dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 Variant-Specific Neutralizing Antibodies Following mRNA Vaccination and Infection.Viruses · 2025Article
- The Effect of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination on HIV Viral Load in Patients Under Bictegravir/Tenofovir Alafenamide/Emtricitabine Therapy: A Retrospective Observational Study.Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland) · 2025Article
- Development of a personalized digital biomarker of vaccine-associated reactogenicity using wearable sensors and digital twin technology.Communications medicine · 2025Article
- Polyfunctional T peripheral helper cells are associated with the magnitude and durability of antibody responses after COVID-19.Clinical & translational immunology · 2025Article
- T cell receptor usage and epitope specificity amongst CD8Frontiers in immunology · 2025Article
- A 20-month longitudinal study to evaluate humoral and cellular immunity after COVID-19 vaccines.Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz · 2025Article
- Longitudinal Evaluation of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 T-Cell Immunity Over 2 Years Following Vaccination and Infection.The Journal of infectious diseases · 2024Article
- Longitudinal study of immunity to SARS-CoV2 in ocrelizumab-treated MS patients up to 2 years after COVID-19 vaccination.Annals of clinical and translational neurology · 2024Article
- Impact of Prior COVID-19 Immunization and/or Prior Infection on Immune Responses and Clinical Outcomes.Viruses · 2024Review
- Evaluation of Long-Term Adaptive Immune Responses Specific to SARS-CoV-2: Effect of Various Vaccination and Omicron Exposure.Vaccines · 2024Article
- Ensemble modeling of SARS-CoV-2 immune dynamics in immunologically naïve rhesus macaques predicts that potent, early innate immune responses drive viral elimination.Frontiers in immunology · 2024Article
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
12 authors at 2 institutions in 2 countries.
Funding
Abstract
backgroundSARS-CoV-2 remains a world-wide health issue. SARS-CoV-2-specific immunity is induced upon both infection and vaccination. However, defining the long-term immune trajectory, especially after infection, is limited. In this study, we aimed to further the understanding of long-term SARS-CoV-2-specific immune response after infection.
resultsWe conducted a longitudinal cohort study among 93 SARS-CoV-2 recovered individuals. Immune responses were continuously monitored for up to 20 months after infection. The humoral responses were quantified by Spike- and Nucleocapsid-specific IgG levels. T cell responses to Spike- and non-Spike epitopes were examined using both intercellular cytokine staining (ICS) assay and Activation-Induced marker (AIM) assay with quantification of antigen-specific IFNγ production. During the 20 months follow-up period, Nucleocapsid-specific antibody levels and non-Spike-specific CD4 + and CD8 + T cell frequencies decreased in the blood. However, a majority of participants maintained a durable immune responses 20 months after infection: 59% of the participants were seropositive for Nucleocapsid-specific IgG, and more than 70% had persisting non-Spike-specific T cells. The Spike-specific response initially decreased but as participants were vaccinated against COVID-19, Spike-specific IgG levels and T cell frequencies were boosted reaching similar or higher levels compared to 1 month post-infection. The trajectory of infection-induced SARS-CoV-2-specific immunity decreases, but for the majority of participants it persists beyond 20 months. The T cell response displays a greater durability. Vaccination boosts Spike-specific immune responses to similar or higher levels as seen after primary infection.
conclusionsFor most participants, the response persists 20 months after infection, and the cellular response appears to be more long-lived compared to the circulating antibody levels. Vaccination boosts the S-specific response but does not affect the non-S-specific response. Together, these findings support the understanding of immune contraction, and with studies showing the immune levels required for protection, adds to the knowledge of durability of protection against future SARS-CoV-2.
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