Assessing co-diversification in host-associated microbiomes.

When lineages of hosts and microbial symbionts engage in intimate interactions over evolutionary timescales, they can diversify in parallel (i.e., co-diversify), producing associations between the lineages' phylogenetic histories. Tests for co-diversification of individual microbial lineages and their hosts have been developed previously, and these have been applied to discover ancient symbioses in diverse branches of the tree of life. However, most host-microbe relationships are not binary but multipartite, in that a single host-associated microbiota can contain many microbial lineages, generating challenges for assessing co-diversification. Here, we review recent evidence for co-diversification in complex microbiota, highlight the limitations of prior studies, and outline a hypothesis testing approach designed to overcome some of these limitations. We advocate for the use of microbiota-wide scans for co-diversifying symbiont lineages and discuss tools developed for this purpose. Tests for co-diversification for simple host symbiont systems can be extended to entire phylogenies of microbial lineages (e.g., metagenome-assembled or isolate genomes, amplicon sequence variants) sampled from host clades, thereby providing a means for identifying co-diversifying symbionts present within complex microbiota. The relative ages of symbiont clades can corroborate co-diversification, and multi-level permutation tests can account for multiple comparisons and phylogenetic non-independence introduced by repeated sampling of host species. Discovering co-diversifying lineages will generate powerful opportunities for interrogating the molecular evolution and lineage turnover of ancestral, host-species specific symbionts within host-associated microbiota.