ArticleFrontiers in immunology2023
Divergent adaptive immune responses define two types of long COVID.
Article in Frontiers in immunology, 2023. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 22 papers, 3 of them syntheses that pooled it.
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Who cites it
22 citing papers in PubMed, 3 syntheses or guidelines pooled it, 28 citations in OpenAlex.
- Neurocardiac Autonomic Dysfunction in Patients With Post-COVID-19 Condition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.European journal of neurology · 2026Pooled it
- Systematic Review of Dyspnea and Chronic Fatigue in Patients With Long COVID: Clinical Characteristics and Associated Laboratory Parameters.Pulmonary medicine · 2026Pooled it
- Blood Biomarkers of Long COVID: A Systematic Review.Molecular diagnosis & therapy · 2024Pooled it
- Cytokine-Driven Hyperinflammation in Long COVID: Mechanisms, Biomarkers, Complement Dysregulation, and Emerging Immunotherapies-A Narrative Review.Health science reports · 2026Article
- Fatigue after COVID-19 infection is associated with peripheral immunometabolic alterations affecting neuroimmune responses in the hippocampus.Translational psychiatry · 2026Article
- Persistent prostaglandin E2 upregulation and hormonal multi-resistance: A hypothesis for long COVID.Biochemistry and biophysics reports · 2026Article
- Divergent inflammatory and neurology-related protein levels in long COVID following primary and breakthrough SARS-CoV-2 infections.Communications medicine · 2026Article
- Article
- Exploring phenotype-related single-cells through attention-enhanced representation learning.Genome medicine · 2026Article
- CD4Frontiers in immunology · 2026Article
- Cardiovascular sequelae of Long COVID: immune dysregulation inflammation as central drivers.Frontiers in immunology · 2026Review
- Inflammatory predictors of Post-COVID fatigue.Brain, behavior, & immunity - health · 2025Article
- Bacteriome Signature in SARS-CoV-2-Infected Patients Correlates with Increased Gut Permeability and Systemic Inflammatory Cytokines.Microorganisms · 2025Article
- Review
- Core features and inherent diversity of post-acute infection syndromes.Frontiers in immunology · 2025Review
- Immune dysregulation and endothelial dysfunction associate with a pro-thrombotic profile in Long COVID.Frontiers in immunology · 2025Article
- Exploring the Pathophysiology of Long COVID: The Central Role of Low-Grade Inflammation and Multisystem Involvement.International journal of molecular sciences · 2024Review
- A Comprehensive Review of the Global Epidemiology, Clinical Management, Socio-Economic Impacts, and National Responses to Long COVID with Future Research Directions.Diagnostics (Basel, Switzerland) · 2024Review
- SARS-CoV-2 vaccination may mitigate dysregulation of IL-1/IL-18 and gastrointestinal symptoms of the post-COVID-19 condition.NPJ vaccines · 2024Article
- Cluster analysis identifies long COVID subtypes in Belgian patients.Biology methods & protocols · 2024Article
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
14 authors at 9 institutions in 1 country.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Background: The role of adaptive immune responses in long COVID remains poorly understood, with contrasting hypotheses suggesting either an insufficient antiviral response or an excessive immune response associated with inflammatory damage. To address this issue, we set to characterize humoral and CD4+ T cell responses in long COVID patients prior to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. Methods: Long COVID patients who were seropositive (LC+, n=28) or seronegative (LC-, n=23) by spike ELISA assay were recruited based on (i) an initial SARS-CoV-2 infection documented by PCR or the conjunction of three major signs of COVID-19 and (ii) the persistence or resurgence of at least 3 symptoms for over 3 months. They were compared to COVID patients with resolved symptoms (RE, n=29) and uninfected control individuals (HD, n=29). Results: The spectrum of persistent symptoms proved similar in both long COVID groups, with a trend for a higher number of symptoms in the seronegative group (median=6 Conclusions: These findings provide evidence for two major types of antiviral immune responses in long COVID. Seropositive patients showed coordinated cellular and humoral responses at least as high as those of recovered patients. In contrast, ELISA-seronegative long COVID patients showed overall low antiviral responses, with detectable specific CD4+ T cells and/or antibodies in close to half of patients (52.2%). These divergent findings in patients sharing a comparable spectrum of persistent symptoms raise the possibility of multiple etiologies in long COVID.
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