Multifunctional high-simulation 3D-printed hydrogel model manufacturing engineering for surgical training.

Advanced bionic organ models with vivid biological structures and wetness and softness are essential for medical-surgical training. Still, there are many challenges in the preparation process, such as matching mechanical properties, good feedback on surgical instruments, reproducibility of specific surgical scenarios, and distinguishability between structural levels. In this paper, we achieved tissuemimicking dual-network (DN) hydrogels with customizable stiffness by adjusting the composition of the hydrogel matrix and the immersion time of the ionic solution to match different biological soft tissues precisely. Combined with advanced threedimensional (3D) printing fabrication techniques, various performance-tunable bionic hydrogel organ models with structural complexity and fidelity, including kidney, liver, pancreas, and vascular tissues, were perfectly fabricated. The simulation and applicability of the model were also simulated for the forced change of the suture needle in the puncture and suture of a single tissue and between different tissues, the cutting of substantive organs by ultrasonic scalpel, the coagulation and hemostasis of blood vessels, the visualization of the internal structure under ultrasound, and the microwave ablation of liver tumors. By constructing advanced biomimetic organ models based on hydrogel with specific and tunable properties, the development of surgical training, medical device testing, and medical education reform will be significantly promoted.