Maternal Cigarette Smoking and Congenital Upper and Lower Limb Differences: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Maternal smoking during pregnancy has been associated with adverse effects on foetal development, including congenital limb anomalies. This systematic review aimed to provide an updated assessment of the association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risk of congenital limb anomalies. A systematic search was conducted to identify relevant studies published up to February 2023. Studies reporting on the relationship between maternal smoking during pregnancy and congenital digital anomalies or congenital limb reduction defects were included. Two independent reviewers screened the studies, extracted data, and assessed the quality of the included studies. Meta-analyses were performed to estimate the pooled odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals using fixed and random-effects models. In total, 37 publications comprising 11 cohort and 26 case-control studies were included in the systematic review. The meta-analysis demonstrated a significant increased risk of congenital limb reduction defects (pooled OR: 1.27, 95% CI: 1.18-1.38) in infants born to mothers who smoked during pregnancy. Similarly, a significant relationship was observed for the development of polydactyly/syndactyly/adactyly when considered as a single group (pooled OR: 1.32, 95% CI: 1.25-1.40). Yet, in contrast, no significant association was observed when polydactyly (pooled OR: 1.06, 95% CI: 0.88-1.27) or syndactyly (pooled OR: 0.91, 95% CI: 0.77-1.08) were considered individually. This systematic review provides updated evidence of a significant relationship between maternal smoking during pregnancy and increased risk of congenital limb anomalies. These findings highlight the potential detrimental effects of smoking on foetal limb development and underscore the importance of smoking cessation interventions for pregnant women to mitigate these risks.