Simulating the dynamics of dispersal and dispersal ability in fragmented populations with mate-finding Allee effects.

We consider the spatial propagation and genetic evolution of model populations comprising multiple subpopulations, each distinguished by its own characteristic dispersal rate. Mate finding is modeled in accord with the assumption that reproduction is based on random encounters between pairs of individuals, so that the frequency of interbreeding between two subpopulations is proportional to the product of local population densities of each. The resulting nonlinear growth term produces an Allee effect, whereby reproduction rates are lower in sparsely populated areas; the distribution of dispersal rates that evolves is then highly dependent upon the population's initial spatial distribution. In a series of numerical test cases, we consider how these dynamics affect lattice-like arrangements of population fragments, and investigate how a population's initial fragmentation determines the dispersal rates that evolve as a habitat is colonized. First, we consider a case where initial population fragments coincide with habitat islands, within which death rates differ from those that apply outside; the presence of inhospitable exterior regions exaggerates Allee effect-driven reductions in dispersal ability. We then examine how greater distances separating adjacent population fragments lead to more severe reductions in dispersal ability. For populations of a fixed initial magnitude, fragmentation into smaller, denser patches leads not only to greater losses of dispersal ability, but also helps ensure the population's long-term persistence, emphasizing the trade-offs between the benefits and risks of rapid dispersal under Allee effects. Next, simulations of well-established populations disrupted by localized depopulation events illustrate how mate-finding Allee effects and spatial heterogeneity can drive a population's dispersal ability to evolve either downward or upward depending on conditions, highlighting a qualitative distinction between population fragmentation and habitat heterogeneity. A final test case compares populations that are fragmented across multiple scales, demonstrating how differences in the relative scales of micro- and macro-level fragmentation can lead to qualitatively different evolutionary outcomes.