The timing of confidence computations in human prefrontal cortex.

Knowing when confidence computations take place is critical for building mechanistic understanding of the neural and computational bases of metacognition. Yet, even though substantial amount of research has focused on revealing the neural correlates and computations underlying human confidence judgments, very little is known about the timing of confidence computations. Subjects judged the orientation of a briefly presented visual stimulus and provided a confidence rating regarding the accuracy of their decision. We delivered single pulses of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) at different times after stimulus presentation. TMS was delivered to either dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in the experimental group or to vertex in the control group. We found that TMS to DLPFC, but not to vertex, led to increased confidence in the absence of changes to accuracy or metacognitive ability. Critically, equivalent levels of confidence increase occurred for TMS delivered between 200 and 500 ms after stimulus presentation. These results suggest that confidence computations occur during a broad window that begins before the perceptual decision has been fully made and thus provide important constraints for theories of confidence generation.