Whale Optimization Algorithm with a Hybrid Relation Vector Machine: A Highly Robust Respiratory Rate Prediction Model Using Photoplethysmography Signals.

Due to the simplicity and convenience of PPG signal acquisition, the detection of the respiration rate based on the PPG signal is more suitable for dynamic monitoring than the impedance spirometry method, but it is challenging to achieve accurate predictions from low-signal-quality PPG signals, especially in intensive-care patients with weak PPG signals. The goal of this study was to construct a simple model for respiration rate estimation based on PPG signals using a machine-learning approach fusing signal quality metrics to improve the accuracy of estimation despite the low-signal-quality PPG signals. In this study, we propose a method based on the whale optimization algorithm (WOA) with a hybrid relation vector machine (HRVM) to construct a highly robust model considering signal quality factors to estimate RR from PPG signals in real time. To detect the performance of the proposed model, we simultaneously recorded PPG signals and impedance respiratory rates obtained from the BIDMC dataset. The results of the respiration rate prediction model proposed in this study showed that the MAE and RMSE were 0.71 and 0.99 breaths/min, respectively, in the training set, and 1.24 and 1.79 breaths/min, respectively, in the test set. Compared without taking signal quality factors into account, MAE and RMSE are reduced by 1.28 and 1.67 breaths/min, respectively, in the training set, and reduced by 0.62 and 0.65 breaths/min in the test set. Even in the nonnormal breathing range below 12 bpm and above 24 bpm, the MAE reached 2.68 and 4.28 breaths/min, respectively, and the RMSE reached 3.52 and 5.01 breaths/min, respectively. The results show that the model that considers the PPG signal quality and respiratory quality proposed in this study has obvious advantages and application potential in predicting the respiration rate to cope with the problem of low signal quality.