Executive Functions as Measured by the Dog Executive Function Scale (DEFS) over the Lifespan of Dogs.

Executive Functions (EFs) are needed for effortful self-regulation of behaviour and are known to change over the lifespan in humans. In domestic dogs, EFs can be assessed through behavioural rating scales, such as the Dog Executive Function Scale (DEFS). The primary aim of this study was to investigate whether the DEFS, developed initially using a sample of adult dogs, can be used in juvenile (<1 year) and senior (>8 years) dogs. Confirmatory factor analysis of a juvenile and senior dog sample led to good model fit indices, indicating that juvenile and senior dogs' EF structure follows the same functional organisation as found in the DEFS. The secondary aim was to analyse the lifespan development of EFs. Analysis of subscale scores revealed multifaceted relationships with age for four subscales. Working Memory and Attention Towards Owner showed the u-shaped curve traditionally associated with the lifespan development of EFs. Forms of inhibition showed complex associations with age, i.e., Delay Inhibition declined in aging and Motor Regulation increased during aging. Training history and Working Status influenced performance independent of age. More highly trained dogs and working dogs exhibited higher EF skills. Training history appeared more important for EF in non-working dogs than working dogs, perhaps because all working dogs receive a high level of training.