ArticleBrain research2023
Basic physiological effects of ketamine-xylazine mixture as a general anesthetic preparation for rodent surgeries.
Article in Brain research, 2023. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 22 papers.
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Who cites it
22 citing papers in PubMed, 26 citations in OpenAlex.
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- Relationship Between the Duration of Intravenous Ketamine Anesthesia and Postoperative Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Response in Rats.International journal of molecular sciences · 2025Article
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- Chronic sustained hypoxia alters the pattern of diaphragm electrical activity in anaesthetized rats.Experimental physiology · 2025Article
- The xylazine-fentanyl nexus: A public health emergency.SAGE open medicine · 2025Review
- Enhancing anesthetic techniques for improving whisker stimulation response in the barrel cortex.PloS one · 2025Article
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- Whole-brain responses to visual and auditory stimuli in anesthetized and minimally restrained awake mice using quiet zero echo time fMRI.Imaging neuroscience (Cambridge, Mass.) · 2024Article
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Authors and funding
4 authors at 1 institution in 1 country.
Funding
Abstract
Among the numerous general anesthetics utilized in rodent surgical procedures, the co-administration of ketamine and xylazine is the current standard for induction and maintenance of surgical planes of anesthesia and pain control. In contrast to classical GABAergic anesthetics, which act to inhibit CNS activity, inducing muscle relaxation, sedation, hypothermia, and brain hypoxia, ketamine and xylazine act through different mechanisms to induce similar effects while also providing potent analgesia. By using three-point thermorecording in freely moving rats, we show that the ketamine-xylazine mixture induces modest brain hyperthermia, resulting from increased intra-cerebral heat production due to metabolic brain activation and increased heat loss due to skin vasodilation. The first effect derives from ketamine, which alone increases brain and body temperatures due to brain metabolic activation and skin vasoconstriction. The second effect derives from xylazine, which increases heat loss due to potent skin vasodilation. By using oxygen sensors coupled with amperometry, we show that the ketamine-xylazine mixture modestly decreases brain oxygen levels that results from relatively weak respiratory depression. This tonic pharmacological effect was preceded by a strong but transient oxygen increase that may result from a stressful injection or unknown, possibly peripheral action of this drug combination. This pattern of physiological effects elicited by the ketamine-xylazine mixture differs from the effects of other general anesthetic drugs, particularly barbiturates.
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Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.