ArticleNPJ science of learning2022
Schooling substantially improves intelligence, but neither lessens nor widens the impacts of socioeconomics and genetics.
Article in NPJ science of learning, 2022. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 10 papers.
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Who cites it
10 citing papers in PubMed.
- Examining Heterogeneity in Cognitive Development Trajectories from Late Childhood to Emerging Adulthood and Their Association with Depressive Symptoms: Evidence from Eight Years of Nationally Representative Data in China.Journal of youth and adolescence · 2026Article
- Socioeconomic Differences in Cognitive Ability Across Childhood and Adolescence: An Investigation of Genetic, Individual, and Environmental Factors.Journal of Intelligence · 2026Article
- Reply to Fitzgerald et al.: Mischaracterizing our findings; the cognitive profile of elite footballers remains robust.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · 2026Article
- Genetic associations with education have increased and are patterned by socioeconomic context: Evidence from 3 studies born 1946-1970.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · 2026Article
- Childhood IQ and adolescent health behavior.SSM - population health · 2025Article
- A Multilevel Analysis of Associations Between Children's Coloured Progressive Matrices Performances and Self-Rated Personality: Class-Average and Class-Homogeneity Differences in Nonverbal Intelligence Matter.Journal of Intelligence · 2025Article
- Article
- Gestational Age and Cognitive Development in Childhood.JAMA network open · 2025Article
- Interplay of socioeconomic status, cognition, and school performance in the ABCD sample.NPJ science of learning · 2024Article
- Physical activity promotes the development of cognitive ability in adolescents: the chain mediating role based on self-education expectations and learning behaviors.Frontiers in psychology · 2024Article
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
3 authors.
Funding
Abstract
Schooling, socioeconomic status (SES), and genetics all impact intelligence. However, it is unclear to what extent their contributions are unique and if they interact. Here we used a multi-trait polygenic score for cognition (cogPGS) with a quasi-experimental regression discontinuity design to isolate how months of schooling relate to intelligence in 6567 children (aged 9-11). We found large, independent effects of schooling (β ~ 0.15), cogPGS (β ~ 0.10), and SES (β ~ 0.20) on working memory, crystallized (cIQ), and fluid intelligence (fIQ). Notably, two years of schooling had a larger effect on intelligence than the lifetime consequences, since birth, of SES or cogPGS-based inequalities. However, schooling showed no interaction with cogPGS or SES for the three intelligence domains tested. While schooling had strong main effects on intelligence, it did not lessen, nor widen the impact of these preexisting SES or genetic factors.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.