Heat Stress Decreases Rice Grain Weight: Evidence and Physiological Mechanisms of Heat Effects Prior to Flowering.

Heat stress during the preflowering panicle initiation stage seriously decreases rice grain weight in an invisible way and has not been given enough attention. The current review aims to (i) specify the heat effects on rice grain weight during the panicle initiation stage compared with the most important grain-filling stage; and (ii) discuss the physiological mechanisms of the decreased rice grain weight induced by heat during panicle initiation in terms of assimilate supply and phytohormone regulation, which are key physiological processes directly regulating rice grain weight. We emphasize that the effect of heat during the panicle initiation stage on rice grain weight is more serious than that during the grain-filling stage. Heat stress during the panicle initiation stage induces alterations in endogenous phytohormones, leading to the inhibition of the photosynthesis of functional leaves (source) and the formation of vascular bundles (flow), thus reducing the accumulation and transport of nonstructural carbohydrates and the growth of lemmata and paleae. The disruptions in the "flow" and restrictions in the preanthesis "source" tissue reduce grain size directly and decrease grain plumpness indirectly, resulting in a reduction in the final grain weight, which could be the direct physiological causes of the lower rice grain weight induced by heat during the panicle initiation stage. We highlight the seriousness of preflowering heat stress on rice grain weight, which can be regarded as an invisible disaster. The physiological mechanisms underlying the lower grain weight induced by heat during panicle initiation show a certain novelty because they distinguish this stage from the grain-filling stage. Additionally, a number of genes that control grain size through phytohormones have been summarized, but their functions have not yet been fully tested under heat conditions, except for the