Progress and Challenges of Point-of-Need Photonic Biosensors for the Diagnosis of COVID-19 Infections and Immunity.

The new coronavirus disease, COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2, continues to affect the world and after more than two years of the pandemic, approximately half a billion people are reported to have been infected. Due to its high contagiousness, our life has changed dramatically, with consequences that remain to be seen. To prevent the transmission of the virus, it is crucial to diagnose COVID-19 accurately, such that the infected cases can be rapidly identified and managed. Currently, the gold standard of testing is polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which provides the highest accuracy. However, the reliance on centralized rapid testing modalities throughout the COVID-19 pandemic has made access to timely diagnosis inconsistent and inefficient. Recent advancements in photonic biosensors with respect to cost-effectiveness, analytical performance, and portability have shown the potential for such platforms to enable the delivery of preventative and diagnostic care beyond clinics and into point-of-need (PON) settings. Herein, we review photonic technologies that have become commercially relevant throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as emerging research in the field of photonic biosensors, shedding light on prospective technologies for responding to future health outbreaks. Therefore, in this article, we provide a review of recent progress and challenges of photonic biosensors that are developed for the testing of COVID-19, consisting of their working fundamentals and implementation for COVID-19 testing in practice with emphasis on the challenges that are faced in different development stages towards commercialization. In addition, we also present the characteristics of a biosensor both from technical and clinical perspectives. We present an estimate of the impact of testing on disease burden (in terms of Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs), Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALYs), and Quality-Adjusted Life Days (QALDs)) and how improvements in cost can lower the economic impact and lead to reduced or averted DALYs. While COVID19 is the main focus of these technologies, similar concepts and approaches can be used and developed for future outbreaks of other infectious diseases.