Trial reportVaccine2022
Can financial incentives and other nudges increase COVID-19 vaccinations among the vaccine hesitant? A randomized trial.
Trial report in Vaccine, 2022. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 48 papers, 3 of them syntheses that pooled it.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
48 citing papers in PubMed, 3 syntheses or guidelines pooled it.
- Pooled it
- Interventions Addressing Vaccine Hesitancy in the WHO European Region and in North America (United States and Canada): A Systematic Review.Public health reviews · 2026Pooled it
- Influence of government policies on handwashing and vaccine uptake in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania to prevent and control COVID-19: a systematic review.Frontiers in public health · 2024Pooled it
- Effects of a Theory- and Evidence-Based, Motivational Interviewing-Oriented Artificial Intelligence Digital Assistant on Vaccine Attitudes: A Randomized Controlled Trial.Journal of medical Internet research · 2025Trial
- Economic and health consequence frames affect COVID-19 vaccine incentive attitudes in Germany- a survey based framing experiment.BMC public health · 2025Trial
- Teacher vaccinations enhance student achievement in Pakistan: The role of role models and theory of mind.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · 2024Trial
- "How" Versus "Why" Messaging to Increase Uptake of Booster Vaccination Against COVID-19: Results of a Pragmatic Randomized Trial.Journal of general internal medicine · 2024Trial
- Reminders, but not monetary incentives, increase COVID-19 booster uptake.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · 2023Trial
- Loss-framing of information and pre-vaccination consultation improve COVID-19 vaccine acceptance: A survey experiment.Frontiers in public health · 2023Trial
- When do persuasive messages on vaccine safety steer COVID-19 vaccine acceptance and recommendations? Behavioural insights from a randomised controlled experiment in Malaysia.BMJ global health · 2022Trial
- Algorithm-assisted personalized risk communication to encourage flu vaccination in the USA: three randomized field trials.Nature human behaviour · 2026Article
- Incentivizing Immunity: Black and Latinx Individuals' Attitudes About COVID-19 Vaccine Incentives.Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities · 2026Article
- Vaccine Incentives Harm Intrinsic Motivation: Evidence From a Priming Experiment.Health economics · 2026Article
- Effectiveness of mobile vaccine clinics on COVID-19 vaccination uptake in the USA: an observational study.BMJ public health · 2026Article
- Recipient-focused interventions to increase vaccine uptake in high and upper-middle income countries: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.EClinicalMedicine · 2025Article
- Vaccine selection strategies and their implications for individual versus population well-being.BMJ global health · 2025Article
- Economic Incentives for COVID-19 Vaccination Among Employees of a Safety-Net Health System and Medical Center in Southern California: A Cross-Sectional Study.Health science reports · 2025Article
- Are people willing to take regular vaccinations? A qualitative study among diverse ethnic groups in Hong Kong.PloS one · 2025Article
- Healthcare Appointments as Commitment Devices.Economic journal (London, England) · 2025Article
- Effect of informational videos on vaccine perceptions among unvaccinated individuals: a randomised educational intervention.BMJ public health · 2025Article
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
5 authors.
Funding
Abstract
Despite rapid initial uptake, COVID-19 vaccinations in the United States stalled within a few months of widespread rollout in 2021. In response, many state and local governments, employers and health systems used public health messaging, financial incentives and creative scheduling tools to increase vaccine uptake. Although these approaches drew on evidence from influenza and other vaccination efforts, they were largely untested in the context of SARS-CoV-2. In mid-2021, months after vaccines were widely available, we evaluated vaccination intentions and vaccine uptake using a randomized control trial. To do this, we recruited unvaccinated members of a Medicaid managed care plan in California (n = 2,701) and randomly assigned them to different public health messages, $10 or $50 financial incentives for vaccination, a simple vaccination appointment scheduler, or control. While messages increased vaccination intentions, none of the interventions increased vaccination rates. Estimates for financial incentives rule out even relatively small increases in vaccination rates. Small financial incentives and other behavioral nudges do not meaningfully increase COVID-19 vaccination rates amongst the vaccine hesitant.
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What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.