A Systematic Evaluation of Ensemble Learning Methods for Fine-Grained Semantic Segmentation of Tuberculosis-Consistent Lesions in Chest Radiographs.

Automated segmentation of tuberculosis (TB)-consistent lesions in chest X-rays (CXRs) using deep learning (DL) methods can help reduce radiologist effort, supplement clinical decision-making, and potentially result in improved patient treatment. The majority of works in the literature discuss training automatic segmentation models using coarse bounding box annotations. However, the granularity of the bounding box annotation could result in the inclusion of a considerable fraction of false positives and negatives at the pixel level that may adversely impact overall semantic segmentation performance. This study evaluates the benefits of using fine-grained annotations of TB-consistent lesions toward training the variants of U-Net models and constructing their ensembles for semantically segmenting TB-consistent lesions in both original and bone-suppressed frontal CXRs. The segmentation performance is evaluated using several ensemble methods such as bitwise- AND, bitwise-OR, bitwise-MAX, and stacking. Extensive empirical evaluations showcased that the stacking ensemble demonstrated superior segmentation performance (Dice score: 0.5743, 95% confidence interval: (0.4055, 0.7431)) compared to the individual constituent models and other ensemble methods. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to apply ensemble learning to improve fine-grained TB-consistent lesion segmentation performance.