ADHD and its neurocognitive substrates: A two sample Mendelian randomization study.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with a wide array of neural and cognitive features, and other psychiatric disorders, identified mainly through cross-sectional associations studies. However, it is unclear if the disorder is causally associated with these neurocognitive features. Here, we applied a two-sample bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) study to summary GWAS data to explore the presence and direction of a causal effect between ADHD and a range of neurocognitive features and other psychiatric disorders. The inverse variance weighted method was used in the main analysis, and two MR methods (MR-Egger, weighted median) were used for robustness checks. We found that genetic risk for ADHD was causally associated with a decreased area of lateral orbitofrontal cortex. Conversely, we found that brain volume and some features of intrinsic functional connectivity had causal effects on ADHD risk. Bidirectional causal links were found between ADHD and adult general intelligence, as well as depression and autistic spectrum disorders. Such work highlights the important ties between ADHD and general cognitive ability, and suggest some neural features, previously merely associated with the disorder, may play a causal role in its pathogenesis.