ArticleJournal of clinical medicine2022
Variation in Tap Water Mineral Content in the United Kingdom: Is It Relevant for Kidney Stone Disease?
Article in Journal of clinical medicine, 2022. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 8 papers, 2 of them syntheses that pooled it.
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Who cites it
8 citing papers in PubMed, 2 syntheses or guidelines pooled it, 13 citations in OpenAlex.
- British Dietetic Association Guidelines for the Dietary Management of Chronic Constipation in Adults.Neurogastroenterology and motility · 2025Guideline
- British Dietetic Association Guidelines for the Dietary Management of Chronic Constipation in Adults.Journal of human nutrition and dietetics : the official journal of the British Dietetic Association · 2025Guideline
- Association between drinking water hardness and incidence of hospitalization for childhood fracture: an ecological study of England.JBMR plus · 2026Article
- Biochemical profiling provides a low-cost and globally accessible method to detect falsified vaccines and insulin.Scientific reports · 2026Article
- Environmental determinants in the development of kidney stone.Urolithiasis · 2025Review
- What kind of water should I advise my kidney stone patient to drink: the Dutch experience.Central European journal of urology · 2024Article
- Hydration for Adult Patients with Nephrolithiasis: Specificities and Current Recommendations.Nutrients · 2023Review
- Minimally Invasive Urological Procedures and Related Technological Developments-Series 2.Journal of clinical medicine · 2023Article
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
2 authors at 2 institutions in 1 country.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Introduction: The dissolved mineral content of drinking water can modify a number of excreted urinary parameters, with potential implications for kidney stone disease (KSD). The aim of this study is to investigate the variation in the mineral content of tap drinking water in the United Kingdom and discuss its implications for KSD. Methods: The mineral composition of tap water from cities across the United Kingdom was ascertained from publicly available water quality reports issued by local water supply companies using civic centre postcodes during 2021. Water variables, reported as 12-monthly average values, included total water hardness and concentrations of calcium, magnesium, sodium and sulphate. An unpaired t-test was undertaken to assess for regional differences in water composition across the United Kingdom. Results: Water composition data were available for 66 out of 76 cities in the United Kingdom: 45 in England, 8 in Scotland, 7 in Wales and 6 in Northern Ireland. The median water hardness in the United Kingdom was 120.59 mg/L CaCO3 equivalent (range 16.02−331.50), while the median concentrations of calcium, magnesium, sodium and sulphate were 30.46 mg/L (range 5.35−128.0), 3.62 mg/L (range 0.59−31.80), 14.72 mg/L (range 2.98−57.80) and 25.36 mg/L (range 2.86−112.43), respectively. Tap water in England was markedly harder than in Scotland (192.90 mg/L vs. 32.87 mg/L as CaCO3 equivalent; p < 0.001), which overall had the softest tap water with the lowest mineral content in the United Kingdom. Within England, the North West had the softest tap water, while the South East had the hardest water (70.00 mg/L vs. 285.75 mg/L as CaCO3 equivalent). Conclusions: Tap water mineral content varies significantly across the United Kingdom. Depending on where one lives, drinking 2−3 L of tap water can contribute over one-third of recommended daily calcium and magnesium requirements, with possible implications for KSD incidence and recurrence.
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