ReviewCNS drugs2022
Treatment Options in Refractory Autoimmune Encephalitis.
Review in CNS drugs, 2022. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 32 papers.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
32 citing papers in PubMed, 41 citations in OpenAlex.
- Suspected encephalitis in adults.Practical neurology · 2026Review
- Autoimmune Encephalitis in Acute Care-Pathology, Diagnosis, and Management.Advanced science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany) · 2026Review
- A Narrative Review: Do Systemic Drugs Used in the Treatment of Psoriatic Disease Affect Alzheimer's Disease?Dermatology and therapy · 2026Review
- The Treatment of Antibody-Mediated Encephalitis: Current, Future Therapies, Unmet Need and Patient Management.Advances in therapy · 2026Review
- Clinical Features and Biomarkers Associated With Intensive Care-Dependent Refractory NMDAR Encephalitis: A Retrospective Cohort Study.Neurology(R) neuroimmunology & neuroinflammation · 2026Article
- Case report: anti-GAD65 antibody-associated epilepsy as the primary manifestation of chronic graft-versus-host disease.Annals of hematology · 2026Review
- Clinical utility of human leukocyte antigen genotyping and immunoglobulin G4 autoantibody testing in autoimmune neurological diseases: A focused minireview.World journal of biological chemistry · 2026Review
- Case Report: Sequential FcRn blockade and B-cell depletion for treatment-refractory relapsing autoimmune encephalitis: a three-patient case series.Frontiers in immunology · 2026Article
- Neuroinflammation and Mental Health in Multiple Sclerosis and Autoimmune Encephalitis: Bridging Biological Mechanisms and Psychosocial Factors.Archives of internal medicine research · 2026Article
- Tocilizumab Treatment in Refractory Autoimmune Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein Astrocytopathy: A Case Report and Literature Review.Journal of inflammation research · 2026Article
- Clinical outcomes and prognostic factors after first- and second-line immunotherapy in a cohort of 57 patients with refractory autoimmune encephalitis.Frontiers in immunology · 2026Article
- Research progress on the association between Hashimoto's thyroiditis and autoimmune encephalitis: a review.Frontiers in immunology · 2026Review
- Tocilizumab for critically ill patients with refractory anti-NMDAR encephalitis: a case report.Frontiers in immunology · 2026Article
- Neuroglial markers of damage in autoimmune neurology.Therapeutic advances in neurological disorders · 2026Review
- Intrathecal treatment of Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate receptor encephalitis: a promising approach for refractory cases.Neurological sciences : official journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology · 2025Review
- A Phase-2B Double-Blind Randomized International Prospective Trial of Inebilizumab in NMDAR Encephalitis: The ExTINGUISH Trial.Neurology open access · 2025Article
- Hashimoto's Encephalopathy: Clinical Features, Therapeutic Strategies, and Rehabilitation Approaches.Biomedicines · 2025Review
- Individualized therapy guided by single-cell sequencing in anti-GABATranslational psychiatry · 2025Article
- Causal relationships between immune cell phenotypes and primary glomerular diseases: genetic evidence from bidirectional Mendelian randomization study.Clinical kidney journal · 2025Article
- Toward curing neurological autoimmune disorders: Biomarkers, immunological mechanisms, and therapeutic targets.Neuron · 2025Review
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
3 authors at 1 institution in 1 country.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Autoimmune encephalitis represents a potentially treatable immune-mediated condition that is being more frequently recognized. Prompt immunotherapy is a key factor for the management of autoimmune encephalitis. First-line treatments include intravenous steroids, plasma exchange, and intravenous immunoglobulins, which can be combined in most severe cases. Rituximab and cyclophosphamide are administered as second-line agents in unresponsive cases. A minority of patients may still remain refractory, thus representing a major clinical challenge. In these cases, treatment strategies are controversial, and no guidelines exist. Treatments proposed for refractory autoimmune encephalitis include (1) cytokine-based drugs (such as tocilizumab, interleukin-2/basiliximab, anakinra, and tofacitinib); (2) plasma cell-depleting agents (such as bortezomib and daratumumab); and (3) treatments targeting intrathecal immune cells or their trafficking through the blood-brain barrier (such as intrathecal methotrexate and natalizumab). The efficacy evidence of these drugs is mostly based on case reports or small case series, with few reported controlled studies or systematic reviews. The aim of the present review is to summarize the current evidence and related methodological issues in the use of these drugs for the treatment of refractory autoimmune encephalitis.
Indexed as
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What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.