ArticleBMJ open2022
Demographic disparities in unimproved drinking water and sanitation in Ghana: a nationally representative cross-sectional study.
Article in BMJ open, 2022. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 6 papers.
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Who cites it
6 citing papers in PubMed.
- Trends and factors influencing household use of unimproved water sources in Ethiopia: a multivariate decomposition analysis of EDHS data.Journal of health, population, and nutrition · 2026Article
- Exploring the Association Between Household Toilet Facility Type and Chronic Malnutrition in Children Under 5 years in Ghana's Northern Zone.Environmental health insights · 2026Article
- Determinants and geographic distribution of unimproved sanitation facilities in sub-Saharan Africa, spatial and multilevel analysis using demographic and health survey (DHS) data.BMC public health · 2025Article
- Prevalence and factors associated with water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) facilities deprivation among children in Nigeria.BMC pediatrics · 2025Article
- Article
- Unimproved source of drinking water and the associated factors: Insights from the 2020 Somalia demographic and health survey.PLOS global public health · 2024Article
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4 authors.
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Abstract
objectiveThe government of Ghana has targeted universal access to safe drinking water by 2025 and elimination of open defecation by year 2030. This study explored the use of unimproved drinking water and unimproved sanitation and assessed their association with demographic factors.
designThis was a secondary data analysis of the 2017 Ghana Maternal Health Survey, a nationally representative cross-sectional survey. Open defecation households were mapped to show regional differences. Weighted logistic regression was used to assess the association of demographic variables with use of unimproved drinking water and unimproved toilet facilities.
settingGhana.
participantsA total of 26 324 households were included in the analysis. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Use of unimproved drinking water and unimproved toilet facilities.
resultsOut of the 26 324 households, 8.9% used unimproved drinking water while 81.6% used unimproved sanitation. Open defecation was practised by 15.2% of Ghanaian households, with a prevalence of 58.8%, 6.7% and 12.5% in the Northern, Middle and Coastal zones, respectively. In the multivariate analysis, rural households (p<0.001), households with more than five members (p<0.001), households with heads less than 25 years (p=0.018), male-headed households (p<0.001) and household heads with no/low level of education (p<0.001) were significantly associated with drinking unimproved water. Also, rural households (p=0.002), households in the Northern zone (p<0.001), single-member households (p<0.001), households with heads less than 25 years (p<0.001) and household heads with no/low level of education (p<0.001) were significantly associated with using unimproved toilet facilities.
conclusionThe target of universal access to safe drinking water by 2025 and elimination of open defecation by 2030 seems impossible to be achieved if appropriate measures are not implemented. We recommend that state authorities, health partners and non-governmental organisations support local-level sanitation plans and strategies.
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