ArticleScience immunology2022
Respiratory mucosal immunity against SARS-CoV-2 after mRNA vaccination.
Article in Science immunology, 2022. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. It is linked to trial NCT06142279 (Development and Qualification of Methods for Analyzing the Mucosal Immune Response to COVID-19), which is not on this map. Cited by 252 papers, 1 of them a synthesis that pooled it.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Development and Qualification of Methods for Analyzing the Mucosal Immune Response to COVID-19
Who cites it
252 citing papers in PubMed, 1 synthesis or guideline pooled it, 352 citations in OpenAlex.
- Mucosal immune response in biology, disease prevention and treatment.Signal transduction and targeted therapy · 2025Pooled it
- Respiratory mucosal immunity: Biological functions, diseases, prevention and therapy.Genes & diseases · 2026Review
- Monocyte-derived galectin-1Nature immunology · 2026Article
- Intranasal Adenoviral Vector Vaccination Induces Durable Antibody and T Cell Responses in the Respiratory Tract.Vaccines · 2026Article
- An Engineered Spike Immunogen Drives Broad Protection of a Bivalent Recombinant Protein COVID-19 Vaccine in Animal Models.Viruses · 2026Article
- From sites to structure to serology: a roadmap for structure-aware molecular evolution of antigenically evolving viruses.Journal of virology · 2026Review
- Respiratory mucosal vaccines for emerging viruses: promise and challenges.Journal of virology · 2026Review
- Pulmonary Delivery of Self-Amplifying RNA: Balancing Inflammation and Durable Transgene Expression.ACS nano · 2026Article
- Dose-dependent effects of recombinant spike protein-based vaccination on SARS-CoV-2 evolutionary dynamics and the emergence of variants in hamster models.The Journal of general virology · 2026Article
- Article
- Review
- Review
- Immunogenicity and protective efficacy on non-adjuvanted CD40-targeting SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in non-human primates.EBioMedicine · 2026Article
- A transferable SARS-CoV-2 IRES module enables dual translation initiation for enhanced antigen expression in COVID-19 mRNA vaccines.Molecular therapy. Nucleic acids · 2026Article
- Impact of Maternal COVID-19 Infection Versus Vaccination on Mucosal Immunity in Breastmilk.Journal of clinical medicine · 2026Article
- Pulmonary surfactant camouflage lipid nanoparticles for efficient mRNA lung delivery.Signal transduction and targeted therapy · 2026Article
- Pathogen-specific immune responses might underlie divergent outcomes of coronavirus and influenza infection in the natural porcine host.Communications biology · 2026Article
- SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination elicit distinct pharyngeal mucosal B cell responses in children.Nature communications · 2026Article
- Combating respiratory diseases with mucosal vaccines.Journal of virology · 2026Review
- Intranasal boosting enhances genital tract T cell immunity following ChAdOx1/MVA hrHPV therapeutic vaccination.NPJ vaccines · 2026Article
192 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
- Commented on by
Authors and funding
27 authors at 10 institutions in 2 countries.
Funding
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination induces robust humoral and cellular immunity in the circulation; however, it is currently unknown whether it elicits effective immune responses in the respiratory tract, particularly against variants of concern (VOCs), including Omicron. We compared the SARS-CoV-2 S-specific total and neutralizing antibody responses, and B and T cell immunity, in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) and blood of COVID-19-vaccinated individuals and hospitalized patients. Vaccinated individuals had significantly lower levels of neutralizing antibody against D614G, Delta (B.1.617.2), and Omicron BA.1.1 in the BAL compared with COVID-19 convalescents despite robust S-specific antibody responses in the blood. Furthermore, mRNA vaccination induced circulating S-specific B and T cell immunity, but in contrast to COVID-19 convalescents, these responses were absent in the BAL of vaccinated individuals. Using a mouse immunization model, we demonstrated that systemic mRNA vaccination alone induced weak respiratory mucosal neutralizing antibody responses, especially against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.1.1 in mice; however, a combination of systemic mRNA vaccination plus mucosal adenovirus-S immunization induced strong neutralizing antibody responses not only against the ancestral virus but also the Omicron BA.1.1 variant. Together, our study supports the contention that the current COVID-19 vaccines are highly effective against severe disease development, likely through recruiting circulating B and T cell responses during reinfection, but offer limited protection against breakthrough infection, especially by the Omicron sublineage. Hence, mucosal booster vaccination is needed to establish robust sterilizing immunity in the respiratory tract against SARS-CoV-2, including infection by the Omicron sublineage and future VOCs.
Indexed as
Identifiers
What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.