Diagnostic Performance of Electronic Noses in Cancer Diagnoses Using Exhaled Breath: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Importance: There has been a growing interest in the use of electronic noses (e-noses) in detecting volatile organic compounds in exhaled breath for the diagnosis of cancer. However, no systematic evaluation has been performed of the overall diagnostic accuracy and methodologic challenges of using e-noses for cancer detection in exhaled breath. Objective: To provide an overview of the diagnostic accuracy and methodologic challenges of using e-noses for the detection of cancer. Data Sources: An electronic search was performed in the PubMed and Embase databases (January 1, 2000, to July 1, 2021). Study Selection: Inclusion criteria were the following: (1) use of e-nose technology, (2) detection of cancer, and (3) analysis of exhaled breath. Exclusion criteria were (1) studies published before 2000; (2) studies not performed in humans; (3) studies not performed in adults; (4) studies that only analyzed biofluids; and (5) studies that exclusively used gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to analyze exhaled breath samples. Data Extraction and Synthesis: PRISMA guidelines were used for the identification, screening, eligibility, and selection process. Quality assessment was performed using Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies 2. Generalized mixed-effects bivariate meta-analysis was performed. Main Outcomes and Measures: Main outcomes were sensitivity, specificity, and mean area under the receiver operating characteristic curve. Results: This review identified 52 articles with a total of 3677 patients with cancer. All studies were feasibility studies. The sensitivity of e-noses ranged from 48.3% to 95.8% and the specificity from 10.0% to 100.0%. Pooled analysis resulted in a mean (SE) area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 94% (95% CI, 92%-96%), a sensitivity of 90% (95% CI, 88%-92%), and a specificity of 87% (95% CI, 81%-92%). Considerable heterogeneity existed among the studies because of differences in the selection of patients, endogenous and exogenous factors, and collection of exhaled breath. Conclusions and Relevance: Results of this review indicate that e-noses have a high diagnostic accuracy for the detection of cancer in exhaled breath. However, most studies were feasibility studies with small sample sizes, a lack of standardization, and a high risk of bias. The lack of standardization and reproducibility of e-nose research should be addressed in future research.