Approaches to Formaldehyde Measurement: From Liquid Biological Samples to Cells and Organisms.

Formaldehyde (FA) is the simplest aldehyde present both in the environment and in living organisms. FA is an extremely reactive compound capable of protein crosslinking and DNA damage. For a long time, FA was considered a "biochemical waste" and a by-product of normal cellular metabolism, but in recent decades the picture has changed. As a result, the need arose for novel instruments and approaches to monitor and measure not only environmental FA in water, cosmetics, and household products, but also in food, beverages and biological samples including cells and even organisms. Despite numerous protocols being developed for in vitro and in cellulo FA assessment, many of them have remained at the "proof-of-concept" stage. We analyze the suitability of different methods developed for non-biological objects, and present an overview of the recently developed approaches, including chemically-synthesized probes and genetically encoded FA-sensors for in cellulo and in vivo FA monitoring. We also discuss the prospects of classical methods such as chromatography and spectrophotometry, and how they have been adapted in response to the demand for precise, selective and highly sensitive evaluation of FA concentration fluctuations in biological samples. The main objectives of this review is to summarize data on the main approaches for FA content measurement in liquid biological samples, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of each method; to report the progress in development of novel molecules suitable for application in living systems; and, finally, to discuss genetically encoded FA-sensors based on existing natural biological FA-responsive elements.