ArticlePLoS computational biology2022
Finding landmarks - An investigation of viewing behavior during spatial navigation in VR using a graph-theoretical analysis approach.
Article in PLoS computational biology, 2022. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 10 papers.
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Who cites it
10 citing papers in PubMed.
- Neural synchrony and cognitive map formulation in collaborative navigation: leader-follower couplings revealed by EEG hyperscanning.Cognitive neurodynamics · 2026Article
- Mobile eye tracking in the real world: Best practices.Journal of vision · 2026Article
- The effect of virtual reality modality level of immersion and locomotion on Spatial learning and gaze measures.Virtual reality · 2026Article
- "Freely explore this environment": individual differences in exploration behavior and survey knowledge.Cognitive research: principles and implications · 2025Article
- Article
- Combining EEG and eye-tracking in virtual reality: Obtaining fixation-onset event-related potentials and event-related spectral perturbations.Attention, perception & psychophysics · 2025Article
- Not seeing the forest for the trees: combination of path integration and landmark cues in human virtual navigation.Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience · 2024Article
- Frontal-midline theta and posterior alpha oscillations index early processing of spatial representations during active navigation.Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior · 2023Article
- Exploration patterns shape cognitive map learning.Cognition · 2023Article
- Article
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Authors and funding
4 authors.
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No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Vision provides the most important sensory information for spatial navigation. Recent technical advances allow new options to conduct more naturalistic experiments in virtual reality (VR) while additionally gathering data of the viewing behavior with eye tracking investigations. Here, we propose a method that allows one to quantify characteristics of visual behavior by using graph-theoretical measures to abstract eye tracking data recorded in a 3D virtual urban environment. The analysis is based on eye tracking data of 20 participants, who freely explored the virtual city Seahaven for 90 minutes with an immersive VR headset with an inbuild eye tracker. To extract what participants looked at, we defined "gaze" events, from which we created gaze graphs. On these, we applied graph-theoretical measures to reveal the underlying structure of visual attention. Applying graph partitioning, we found that our virtual environment could be treated as one coherent city. To investigate the importance of houses in the city, we applied the node degree centrality measure. Our results revealed that 10 houses had a node degree that exceeded consistently two-sigma distance from the mean node degree of all other houses. The importance of these houses was supported by the hierarchy index, which showed a clear hierarchical structure of the gaze graphs. As these high node degree houses fulfilled several characteristics of landmarks, we named them "gaze-graph-defined landmarks". Applying the rich club coefficient, we found that these gaze-graph-defined landmarks were preferentially connected to each other and that participants spend the majority of their experiment time in areas where at least two of those houses were visible. Our findings do not only provide new experimental evidence for the development of spatial knowledge, but also establish a new methodology to identify and assess the function of landmarks in spatial navigation based on eye tracking data.
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