Recent advances in understanding/management of premenstrual dysphoric disorder/premenstrual syndrome.

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) are common disorders of the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle and are characterized by moderate to severe physical, affective, or behavioral symptoms that impair daily activities and quality of life. PMS and PMDD have recently raised great interest in the research community for their considerable global prevalence. The etiology of PMS/PMDD is complex. Ovarian reproductive steroids (estradiol and progesterone) are considered pathogenetic effectors, but the key feature seems to be an altered sensitivity of the GABAergic central inhibitory system to allopregnanolone, a neurosteroid derived from progesterone produced after ovulation. Also, a reduced availability of serotonin seems to be involved. New insights point to a role for genetic and epigenetic modifications of hormonal and neurotransmitter pathways, and inflammation is the potential link between peripheral and neurological integrated responses to stressors. Thus, new therapeutic approaches to PMS/PMDD include inhibition of progesterone receptors in the brain (i.e., with ulipristal acetate), reduced conversion of progesterone to its metabolite allopregnanolone with dutasteride, and possible modulation of the action of allopregnanolone on the brain GABAergic system with sepranolone. Further research is needed to better understand the interaction between peripheral inflammatory molecules (cytokines, interleukins, C-reactive protein, and reactive oxygen species) and the brain neurotransmitter systems in women with PMS/PMDD. If confirmed, neuroinflammation could lead both to develop targeted anti-inflammatory therapies and to define prevention strategies for the associated chronic inflammatory risk in PMS/PMDD. Finally, the observed association between premenstrual disorders and psychological diseases may guide prompt and adequate interventions to achieve a better quality of life.