SynthesisAntimicrobial resistance and infection control2022
Education level and misuse of antibiotics in the general population: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis.
Synthesis in Antimicrobial resistance and infection control, 2022. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 29 papers, 2 of them syntheses that pooled it.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
29 citing papers in PubMed, 2 syntheses or guidelines pooled it, 50 citations in OpenAlex.
- Non-prescription antibiotic dispensing in community pharmacies in LMICs: a systematic review of prevalence, drivers, and policy implications.BMC health services research · 2026Pooled it
- Point prevalence of evidence-based antimicrobial use among hospitalized patients in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Scientific reports · 2024Pooled it
- Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of parents toward antibiotic use in children attending public hospitals in Mogadishu, Somalia.Tropical medicine and health · 2026Article
- Validity of self-reported educational attainment collected as part of a telephone interview in a Norwegian dietary study.Journal of public health research · 2026Article
- Self-medication and pain in the European Union: Gender differences and associated factors.Preventive medicine reports · 2026Article
- Microplastics as active modulators ofBiofilm · 2026Article
- Development of a covalent organic framework/graphene oxide aptasensor for electrochemical penicillin detection.Mikrochimica acta · 2026Article
- Applying a gender and equity matrix for a contextualized antimicrobial stewardship intervention in Pakistan.Health policy and planning · 2026Article
- Article
- Association between health literacy and antibiotic-related knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors.BMC public health · 2026Article
- Fecal carriage, risk factors, and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of Salmonella from lactating cows and contact humans at the dairy farm level in Mekelle and Southeast Zones of Tigrai, Northern Ethiopia.BMC infectious diseases · 2025Article
- Household Knowledge of Clinical Risks, Storage, and Disposal of Leftover Antibiotics: A Multinational Study in Seven Developing Countries.Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland) · 2025Article
- Surveying Self-Medication Practices and Attitudes Toward Antibiotic Use Among Adults in Primary Care.Cureus · 2025Article
- Public understanding and misuse of antibiotics in China: insights from a comprehensive national survey.The Lancet regional health. Western Pacific · 2025Article
- A cross-sectional study examining the role of doctors' trust in patients' requests for antibiotics: a neglected perspective.Archives of public health = Archives belges de sante publique · 2025Article
- Invisible Engines of Resistance: How Global Inequities Drive Antimicrobial Failure.Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland) · 2025Review
- Misconceptions and Behavioral Risks in Parental Antibiotic Use on Romanian Children: A Cross-Sectional Study on Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices.Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland) · 2025Article
- Development and validation of medication literacy scale for adults: MELSA version II.BMC public health · 2025Article
- Knowledge, attitude, and practices regarding antibiotic use and antimicrobial resistance among urban slum dwellers in Uganda.Antimicrobial resistance and infection control · 2025Article
- Article
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
4 authors at 2 institutions in 2 countries.
Funding
Abstract
backgroundNumerous studies evaluated the association of education level with misuse of antibiotics by the general population, yet divergent findings were reported. Therefore, a meta-analysis was conducted to summarize this association.
methodsA categorical and continuous dose-response meta-analysis of the association of education level with antibiotic misuse was undertaken. Summary odds ratios (ORs) and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using random-effect model.
resultsThe meta-analysis included 85 studies from 42 countries of different socioeconomic status. Compared to low education (≤ 9 years), medium education (> 9-12 years) is associated with 20% lower odds of antibiotic misuse in high-income countries (OR = 0.80; 95% CI 0.66, 0.97), while high education (> 12 years) is associated with 14% lower odds of any aspect of antibiotic misuse (OR = 0.86; 95% CI 0.72, 1.03). The association is more pronounced in Middle East (OR = 0.64; 95% CI 0.42, 1.00) and countries of lower-middle economies (OR = 0.67, 95% CI 0.41, 1.11). Inversely, in Europe, high education is associated with 25% higher odds of antibiotic misuse (OR = 1.25, 95% CI 1.00, 1.58). Each additional year of education was associated with 4% lower odds of any aspect of antibiotic misuse in lower-middle economies (OR = 0.96; 95% CI 0.92, 1.00) and in Middle East (OR = 0.96; 95% CI 0.93, 1.00). Conversely, it was associated with 3% higher odds of antibiotic storage, a specific type of misuse (OR = 1.03, 95% CI 1.01, 1.06).
conclusionIndividuals misuse antibiotics irrespective of their education level. Intervention programs to enhance the proper use of antibiotics should target all communities independent of their education level.
Indexed as
Identifiers
What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.