Foreflipper and hindflipper muscle reconstructions of

backgroundPlesiosaurs, diapsid crown-group Sauropterygia, inhabited the oceans from the Late Triassic to the Late Cretaceous. Their most exceptional characteristic are four hydrofoil-like flippers. The question whether plesiosaurs employed their four flippers in underwater flight, rowing flight, or rowing has not been settled yet. Plesiosaur locomotory muscles have been reconstructed in the past, but neither the pelvic muscles nor the distal fore- and hindflipper musculature have been reconstructed entirely.

methodsAll plesiosaur locomotory muscles were reconstructed in order to find out whether it is possible to identify muscles that are necessary for underwater flight including those that enable flipper rotation and twisting. Flipper twisting has been proven by hydrodynamic studies to be necessary for efficient underwater flight. So,

resultsA total of 52 plesiosaur fore- and hindflipper muscles were reconstructed. Amongst these are flipper depressors, elevators, retractors, protractors, and rotators. These muscles enable a fore- and hindflipper downstroke and upstroke, the two sequences that represent an underwater flight flipper beat cycle. Additionally, other muscles were capable of twisting fore- and hindflippers along their length axis during down- and upstroke accordingly. A combination of these muscles that actively aid in flipper twisting and intermetacarpal/intermetatarsal and metacarpodigital/metatarsodigital ligament systems, that passively engage the successive digits, could have accomplished fore-and hindflipper length axis twisting in plesiosaurs that is essential for underwater flight. Furthermore, five muscles that could possibly actively adjust the flipper profiles for efficient underwater flight were found, too.