ArticlePLoS pathogens2021
Longitudinal dynamics of SARS-CoV-2-specific cellular and humoral immunity after natural infection or BNT162b2 vaccination.
Article in PLoS pathogens, 2021. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. An erratum has been issued. Cited by 42 papers.
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
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Who cites it
42 citing papers in PubMed, 62 citations in OpenAlex.
- Evaluation of Cellular Immune Responses After mRNA-1273 Vaccination in Children 6 Months to 11 Years of Age.The Journal of infectious diseases · 2025Trial
- Correction: Longitudinal dynamics of SARS-CoV-2-specific cellular and humoral immunity after natural infection or BNT162b2 vaccination.PLoS pathogens · 2026Article
- Two-Year Follow-Up of Humoral and Cellular Immune Responses to SARS-CoV-2 in Healthcare Professionals.Vaccines · 2025Article
- Persistent Classical and Atypical Memory B Cells Underlie Heterogeneous Vaccine Responses in Ocrelizumab-Treated Multiple Sclerosis.bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology · 2025Article
- Humoral response dynamics following inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccination and their association with subsequent infection and symptoms in individuals with and without prior SARS-CoV-2 infection: evidence from Sichuan Province, China.Microbiology spectrum · 2025Article
- A repeated cross-sectional analysis of SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in Manila, the Philippines after implementation of the national COVID-19 vaccination program.Tropical medicine and health · 2025Article
- Immune disorders and COVID-19 vaccination: analysing anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels and cellular immune response.Central-European journal of immunology · 2025Article
- Enhanced RBD-Specific Antibody Responses and SARS-CoV-2-Relevant T-Cell Activity in Healthcare Workers Following Booster Vaccination.Current issues in molecular biology · 2024Article
- A novel metric-based approach of scoring early host immune response from oro-nasopharyngeal swabs predicts COVID-19 outcome.Scientific reports · 2024Article
- Cellular and humoral immunogenicity against SARS-CoV-2 vaccination or infection is associated with the memory phenotype of T- and B-lymphocytes in adult allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant recipients.International journal of hematology · 2024Article
- Analysis of Cell Immunity for Children Infected with SARS-CoV-2 and Those Vaccinated against SARS-CoV-2 Using T-SPOTMicroorganisms · 2024Article
- Cellular Immunity of SARS-CoV-2 in the Borriana COVID-19 Cohort: A Nested Case-Control Study.Epidemiologia (Basel, Switzerland) · 2024Article
- Primary SARS-CoV-2 infection in children and adults results in similar Fc-mediated antibody effector function patterns.Clinical & translational immunology · 2024Article
- Convalescent Adaptive Immunity Is Highly Heterogenous after SARS-CoV-2 Infection.Journal of clinical medicine · 2023Article
- Unveiling a New Perspective on Distinguishing Omicron Breakthrough Cases and Postimmune COVID-19-Naive Individuals: Insights from Antibody Profiles.Microbiology spectrum · 2023Article
- Immune Response Against SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Vaccination in a CD8α-Deficient Patient.Journal of clinical immunology · 2023Article
- Review of Immunologic Manifestations of COVID-19 Infection and Vaccination.Heart failure clinics · 2023Review
- TiSA: TimeSeriesAnalysis-a pipeline for the analysis of longitudinal transcriptomics data.NAR genomics and bioinformatics · 2023Article
- Immunogenicity and safety of homologous and heterologous booster vaccination of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (COVISHIELD™) and BBV152 (COVAXIN®): a non-inferiority phase 4, participant and observer-blinded, randomised study.The Lancet regional health. Southeast Asia · 2023Article
- Specific immune responses after BNT162b2 mRNA vaccination and COVID-19 infection.Frontiers in immunology · 2023Article
Corrections and comments
- Erratum issued
Authors and funding
22 authors at 5 institutions in 1 country.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
The timing of the development of specific adaptive immunity after natural SARS-CoV-2 infection, and its relevance in clinical outcome, has not been characterized in depth. Description of the long-term maintenance of both cellular and humoral responses elicited by real-world anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccination is still scarce. Here we aimed to understand the development of optimal protective responses after SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination. We performed an early, longitudinal study of S1-, M- and N-specific IFN-γ and IL-2 T cell immunity and anti-S total and neutralizing antibodies in 88 mild, moderate or severe acute COVID-19 patients. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2-specific adaptive immunity was also analysed in 234 COVID-19 recovered subjects, 28 uninfected BNT162b2-vaccinees and 30 uninfected healthy controls. Upon natural infection, cellular and humoral responses were early and coordinated in mild patients, while weak and inconsistent in severe patients. The S1-specific cellular response measured at hospital arrival was an independent predictive factor against severity. In COVID-19 recovered patients, four to seven months post-infection, cellular immunity was maintained but antibodies and neutralization capacity declined. Finally, a robust Th1-driven immune response was developed in uninfected BNT162b2-vaccinees. Three months post-vaccination, the cellular response was comparable, while the humoral response was consistently stronger, to that measured in COVID-19 recovered patients. Thus, measurement of both humoral and cellular responses provides information on prognosis and protection from infection, which may add value for individual and public health recommendations.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.