ArticleJournal of immunology (Baltimore, Md. : 1950)2021
Cutting Edge: Circulating Exosomes with COVID Spike Protein Are Induced by BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) Vaccination prior to Development of Antibodies: A Novel Mechanism for Immune Activation by mRNA Vaccines.
Article in Journal of immunology (Baltimore, Md. : 1950), 2021. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 76 papers, 1 of them a synthesis that pooled it.
What it found
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
76 citing papers in PubMed, 1 synthesis or guideline pooled it, 150 citations in OpenAlex.
- Nephrotic syndrome following COVID-19 vaccination: a systematic review.Journal of nephrology · 2023Pooled it
- Safety, immunogenicity, persistence and dose evaluation of the CS-2034 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine: a phase II randomized controlled trial in healthy Chinese adults.BMC infectious diseases · 2025Trial
- Lipid nanoparticles as active biointerfaces: From membrane interaction to systemic dysregulation.Acta pharmaceutica Sinica. B · 2026Review
- Hijacking exosome biogenesis: viral glycoproteins as modular scaffolds for engineering functionalized extracellular vesicles.Nanoscale · 2026Article
- Detection of spike protein in term placentas of COVID-19 vaccinated and/or SARS-CoV-2 infected women.PloS one · 2026Article
- Extracellular vesicles as new-age vaccine carriers: a focused account on viral diseases.Frontiers in immunology · 2026Review
- Immunology of RNA-based vaccines: The critical interplay between inflammation and expression.Molecular therapy : the journal of the American Society of Gene Therapy · 2025Review
- SARS-CoV2 and Anti-COVID-19 mRNA Vaccines: Is There a Plausible Mechanistic Link with Cancer?Cancers · 2025Review
- Combined Adaptive Immune Mechanisms Mediate Cardiac Injury After COVID-19 Vaccination.Circulation · 2025Article
- Unique Features and Collateral Immune Effects of mRNA-LNP COVID-19 Vaccines: Plausible Mechanisms of Adverse Events and Complications.Pharmaceutics · 2025Review
- Cross-Priming and Cross-Tolerance After Intramuscular mRNA Vaccination for Viral Infections: Feasibility and Implications.Life (Basel, Switzerland) · 2025Review
- Multisystem Endothelial Inflammation: A Key Driver of Adverse Events Following mRNA-Containing COVID-19 Vaccines.Vaccines · 2025Review
- Aged garlic extract major constituent S-1-propenyl-l-cysteine inhibits proinflammatory mRNA expression in bronchial epithelial IB3-1 cells exposed to the BNT162b2 vaccine.Experimental and therapeutic medicine · 2025Article
- Quantitative characterisation of extracellular vesicles designed to decoy or compete with SARS-CoV-2 reveals differential mode of action across variants of concern and highlights the diversity of Omicron.Cell communication and signaling : CCS · 2025Article
- The Potential of Extracellular Vesicle-Mediated Spread of Self-Amplifying RNA and a Way to Mitigate It.International journal of molecular sciences · 2025Article
- The role of mRNA vaccines in infectious diseases: a new era of immunization.Tropical diseases, travel medicine and vaccines · 2025Review
- Review
- Review
- The guided fire from within: intratumoral administration of mRNA-based vaccines to mobilize memory immunity and direct immune responses against pathogen to target solid tumors.Cell discovery · 2025Article
- The Possible Mechanistic Basis of Individual Susceptibility to Spike Protein Injury.Advances in virology · 2025Review
16 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
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Authors and funding
7 authors at 2 institutions in 1 country.
Funding
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes severe acute respiratory syndrome. mRNA vaccines directed at the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein resulted in development of Abs and protective immunity. To determine the mechanism, we analyzed the kinetics of induction of circulating exosomes with SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and Ab following vaccination of healthy individuals. Results demonstrated induction of circulating exosomes expressing spike protein on day 14 after vaccination followed by Abs 14 d after the second dose. Exosomes with spike protein, Abs to SARS-CoV-2 spike, and T cells secreting IFN-γ and TNF-α increased following the booster dose. Transmission electron microscopy of exosomes also demonstrated spike protein Ags on their surface. Exosomes with spike protein and Abs decreased in parallel after four months. These results demonstrate an important role of circulating exosomes with spike protein for effective immunization following mRNA-based vaccination. This is further documented by induction of humoral and cellular immune responses in mice immunized with exosomes carrying spike protein.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.